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• W108996925 abstract "Anti-Semitism, like the poor, has always been with us. But it was not until the second half of the nineteenth century that anti-Semitism began to take on the rhetoric, ideological contours, and nationalist coloring that marks anti-Semitism and separates it from the rather less virulent pre-modern version of Judeophobia.(1) Typically, the emergence of modern anti-Semitism is linked with a xenophobic, integral and the development of such new fields of scientific endeavor as racist studies and eugenics. One can hardly object to this familiar argument, at least as an over-all thesis and explanation covering anti-Semitism as a general European phenomenon. Lacking in the historiography is something else: a closer appreciation of anti-Semitism outside of Western Europe (including Germany) and in particular of the Polish case. This article will attempt to address this gap in the literature. It is probably safe to state that at the turn of the century the majority of the world Jewish community resided in Poland - that is to say, most Jews lived in communities located on the lands of the late, great Polish Rzeczpospolita. The lion's share of the defunct Polish Commonwealth was incorporated into the Russian Empire at the end of the eighteenth century, and it is no coincidence that Polish anti-Semitism of the new era developed mainly in that region. In the nineteenth century, to be sure, Poland as a state existed only in the minds of Polish patriots. The fact that Poles lived through this period without their own state (and with a vivid historical memory of the loss of a previous state) must be remembered when one considers Polish relations to the other national groups living between the Baltic and Black Seas, and a fortiori when speaking of Polish-Jewish relations. For a good part of the nineteenth century, Polish patriots could and did regard -- at least in theory -- the numerous Jews living in their midst as potential allies in a national struggle against Russian oppression: Jews and Poles should join hands and fight, to use the Polish phrase, za nasza i wasza. wolaosc -- for your freedom and ours. The best example of this potential brotherhood of Jews and Poles grew up out of the events of the early 1860s which culminated in the 1863 January Insurrection against Russian power.(2) After the crushing of the January uprising, hopes for brotherhood between Poles and Jews soon faded or, at the very least, were eclipsed in the Polish public consciousness by the overtly repressive measures adopted toward Poles by the Russian authorities. In the generation after 1863, romantic nationalism became a term of abuse as Polish society turned to the less exalted but perhaps more practical philosophy of positivism. On the whole, the positivists preferred to avoid national and religious issues (they were, after all, good nineteenth century radicals and skeptical of clergy, regardless of faith or denomination) and specifically in regards to the Jews espoused a philosophy of gradual enlightenment and assimilation.(3) This era of small deeds and distrust of national slogans began to fade in the 1880s as the more activist ideologies of (e.g., National Democrats or Endeks) and socialism gained more and more supporters among impatient youths who could see little results gained from their fathers' generation-long acquiescence with the national status quo. For Polish-Jewish relations, the watershed event marking a clear break between the old, generally-accepted ideal of assimilation, and a new, more explicitly modern anti-Semitic movement, was the Warsaw pogrom of 1881. As is well known, the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in the spring of 1881, combined with a good deal of local agitation and anti-Jewish propaganda, brought forth a brutal wave of pogroms in the southwestern provinces of the Russian Empire during that year's summer months.(4) For whatever reason, the pogroms did not spread to the mainly Lithuanian and Belorussian northwestern provinces, nor did anti-Jewish excesses occur in the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland. …" @default.
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• W108996925 date "1997-03-01" @default.
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• W108996925 title "The International Jewish Conspiracy Reaches Poland: Teodor Jeske-Choinski and His Works" @default.
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