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• W115536111 abstract "The article by Goova and colleagues in this issue of The American Journal of Pathology extends long-standing work from this laboratory in which the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) was purified, cloned, and shown in multiple in vivo systems to inhibit diabetes-related sequelae when administered as a soluble receptor fragment for advance glycation products (sRAGE).1Goova MT Li J Kislinger T Qu W Lu Y Bucciarelli LG Nowygrod S Wolf BM Caliste X Yan SF Stern DM Schmidt AM Blockade of receptor for advanced glycation end-products restores effective wound healing in diabetic mice.Am J Pathol. 2001; 159: 513-525Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (354) Google Scholar, 2Neeper M Schmidt AM Brett J Yan SD Wang F Pan YC Elliston K Stern D Shaw A Cloning and expression of RAGE: a cell surface receptor for advanced glycosylation end products of proteins.J Biol Chem. 1992; 267: 14998-15004Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 3Schmidt AM Vianna M Gerlach M Brett J Ryan J Kao J Esposito C Hegarty H Hurley W Clauss M Wang F Pan YC Tsang C Stern D Isolation and characterization of two binding proteins for advanced glycosylation end products from bovine lung which are present on the endothelial cell surface.J Biol Chem. 1992; 267: 14887-14997Google Scholar, 4Schmidt AM Stern DM RAGE: a new target for the prevention and treatment of the vascular and inflammatory complications of diabetes.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2000; 11: 368-375Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar In the present studies, the authors methodically show that the well-recognized impaired wound healing in the db/db mouse, a model that approximates many of the features of type 2 diabetes in humans, could be ameliorated by administration of sRAGE. Given the complex molecular and cellular milieu of the chronic wound state, and the well-recognized negative impact of diabetes on wound healing,5Goodson III, WH Hunt TK Wound healing and the diabetic patient.Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1979; 149: 600-608PubMed Google Scholar these novel findings open new avenues of investigation and potential therapeutic intervention.How Does the AGE-RAGE Axis Influence Our Thinking about Nonhealing Diabetic Wounds?Advanced glycation endproducts have been established to interfere with both extracellular matrix through inappropriate cross-linking of matrix proteins,6Monnier VM Sell DR Nagaraj RH Miyata S Grandhee S Odetti P Ibrahim SA Maillard reaction-mediated molecular damage to extracellular matrix and other tissue proteins in diabetes, aging, and uremia.Diabetes. 1992; 41: 36-41Crossref PubMed Google Scholar and with cellular function via cell surface receptor-mediated interactions.7Kislinger T Fu C Huber B Qu W Taguchi A Du Yan S Hofmann M Yan SF Pischetsrieder M Stern D Schmidt AM N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine adducts of proteins are ligands for receptor for advanced glycation end products that activate cell signaling pathways and modulate gene expression.J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 31740-31749Crossref PubMed Scopus (790) Google Scholar, 8Schmidt AM Hofmann M Taguchi A Yan SD Stern DM RAGE: a multiligand receptor contributing to the cellular response in diabetic vasculopathy and inflammation.Semin Thromb Hemost. 2000; 26: 485-493Crossref PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar RAGE, a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is present on numerous cell types important for normal wound healing, including endothelial cells, monocytes, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells. Consequences of AGEs in diabetic wounds, as shown by Goova and colleagues, include a complex and nonintuitive sequence of events beginning with delayed inflammatory cell influx into the wound, and leading to asustained state of chronic inflammation once the inflammatory cells do establish residence. This situation prevents the wound from progressing to matrix deposition and remodeling phases, thus inhibiting healing. The Columbia group has shown previously that sRAGE can prevent AGE-induced complications in several experimental systems, including accelerated diabetic atherosclerosis9Park L Raman KG Lee KJ Lu Y Ferran Jr, LJ Chow WS Stern D Schmidt AM Suppression of accelerated diabetic atherosclerosis by the soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts.Nat Med. 1998; 4: 1025-1031Crossref PubMed Scopus (1016) Google Scholar and diabetes-associated periodontitis.10Lalla E Lamster IB Feit M Huang L Spessot A Qu W Kislinger T Lu Y Stern DM Schmidt AM Blockade of RAGE suppresses periodontitis-associated bone loss in diabetic mice.J Clin Invest. 2000; 105: 1117-1124Crossref PubMed Scopus (287) Google Scholar In the present work, they have demonstrated restoration of the normal healing response when db/db mice were administered sRAGE.1Goova MT Li J Kislinger T Qu W Lu Y Bucciarelli LG Nowygrod S Wolf BM Caliste X Yan SF Stern DM Schmidt AM Blockade of receptor for advanced glycation end-products restores effective wound healing in diabetic mice.Am J Pathol. 2001; 159: 513-525Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (354) Google ScholarRAGE also binds non-AGEs: members of the S100/calgranulin family of polypeptides, termed extracellular newly identified RAGE-binding proteins (EN-RAGEs);11Hofmann MA Drury S Fu C Qu W Taguchi A Lu Y Avila C Kambham N Bierhaus A Nawroth P Neurath MF Slattery T Beach D McClary J Nagashima M Morser J Stern D Schmidt AM RAGE mediates a novel proinflammatory axis: a central cell surface receptor for S100/calgranulin polypeptides.Cell. 1999; 97: 889-901Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1582) Google Scholar in fact these may be the natural ligands for this receptor. EN-RAGEs are synthesized by leukocytes, and trigger inflammatory cell activation, leading to synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. This autocrine and paracrine loop propagates and sustains the inflammatory response. At least some intracellular pathways stimulated by EN-RAGEs and AGEs are identical, such as nuclear factor-κB signaling, likely further contributing to a chronic inflammatory state in wounds that contain both RAGE ligands.What Has Been Learned about the Biology of Nonhealing Wounds?Chronic wounds are a heterogeneous collection of dermal lesions that do not undergo the normal healing progression: inflammation, proliferation and matrix deposition, and remodeling.12Singer AJ Clark RA Cutaneous wound healing.N Engl J Med. 1999; 341: 738-746Crossref PubMed Scopus (4567) Google Scholar, 13Robson MC Mustoe TA Hunt TK The future of recombinant growth factors in wound healing.Am J Surg. 1998; 176: 80S-82SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (166) Google Scholar, 14Martin P Wound healing—aiming for perfect skin regeneration.Science. 1997; 276: 75-81Crossref PubMed Scopus (3657) Google Scholar They include not only diabetic neuropathic and vascular insufficiency ulcers on the lower extremities, but also pressure ulcers (decubiti), venous stasis ulcers, severe burns, and a host of rarer lesions associated with skin or autoimmune diseases. These nonhealing wounds have been the subject of intensive investigation throughout the past 15 years, as recombinant growth factors emerged on the scene. Given that the targets of members of the epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and transforming growth factor-β families were cells that participated in the dermal wound repair process, it was logical to use this model as the first foray into clinical studies with these growth factors. With one notable exception (PDGF-BB homodimer15Smiell JM Wieman TJ Steed DL Perry BH Sampson AR Schwab BH Efficacy and safety of becaplermin (recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor-BB) in patients with nonhealing, lower extremity diabetic ulcers: a combined analysis of four randomized studies.Wound Repair Regen. 1999; 7: 335-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (350) Google Scholar), this drug development effort may be considered a failure for several reasons.16Pierce GF Mustoe TA Pharmacologic enhancement of wound healing.Annu Rev Med. 1995; 46: 467-481Crossref PubMed Scopus (184) Google ScholarFirst, most growth factors were evaluated in normal animal models or impaired healing models that did not fully replicate the conditions present in human nonhealing wounds. Second, all nonhealing human wounds are not alike, and biology in a neuropathic diabetic ulcer may be quite distinct from the biology in a diabetic ulcer due primarily to vascular insufficiency. Third, patient and caregiver compliance with treatment regimens confounded treatment versus control comparisons. Fourth, wound-care specialists needed to standardize good wound care, and once this occurred, control groups healed at accelerated rates (placebo effect). Fifth, delivery of the protein therapeutic, retaining enough within distinct wound microenvironments for a sufficient period of time, proved very challenging. And sixth, a fundamental lack of understanding of wound-healing processes—both normal and abnormal—that didn’t fully permit science-based selection of therapeutic candidates. Better understanding the pathophysiology of nonhealing diabetic wounds can only help identify better therapeutic modalities and targets.Chronic wounds can arise from recurrent or chronic injuries (ie, intermittent ischemia) and/or low-level bacterial contamination. Once established, positive autocrine feedback loops and ongoing insults maintain the chronic wound state, preventing progression of the healing process, specifically fibroblast and neovessel accumulation and net matrix deposition. The key is to break this cycle. This may be accomplished surgically, through sharp debridement to bleeding margins of the wound. This procedure, standardized for diabetic ulcers by Steed and colleagues,17Steed DL Donohoe D Webster MW Lindsley L Effect of extensive debridement and treatment on the healing of diabetic foot ulcers. Diabetic Ulcer Study Group.J Am Coll Surg. 1996; 183: 61-64PubMed Google Scholar serves to jump start the wound-healing process, and disrupts the state of chronic inflammation. Growth factors such as PDGF-BB may be the pharmacological equivalent of sharp debridement, because PDGF exaggerates the inflammatory and proliferative/matrix deposition phases of repair. PDGF does not disrupt the normal sequence of events, unlike other growth factors applied pharmacologically to wounds, such as fibroblast growth factors and transforming growth factor-β, which do alter the normal healing process.18Pierce GF Tarpley J Yanagihara D Mustoe TA Fox GM Thomason A PDGF-BB, TGF-β1, and basic FGF in dermal wound healing: neovessel and matrix formation and cessation of repair.Am J Pathol. 1992; 140: 1375-1388PubMed Google ScholarTogether, surgical debridement and daily application of PDGF-BB have resulted in a modest ∼15% improvement in the rate of fully healed diabetic ulcers in patients.15Smiell JM Wieman TJ Steed DL Perry BH Sampson AR Schwab BH Efficacy and safety of becaplermin (recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor-BB) in patients with nonhealing, lower extremity diabetic ulcers: a combined analysis of four randomized studies.Wound Repair Regen. 1999; 7: 335-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (350) Google Scholar Thus, more effective treatment strategies are needed. The delivery of the PDGF-B gene (which encodes PDGF-BB protein) in an adenoviral vector has provided for longer term, more localized delivery of PDGF-BB protein.19Crombleholme TM Adenoviral-mediated gene transfer in wound healing.Wound Repair Regen. 2000; 8: 460-472Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 20Chandler LA Ma C Gonzalez AM Doukas J Nguyen T Pierce GF Phillips ML Matrix-enabled gene transfer for cutaneous wound repair.Wound Repair Regen. 2000; 8: 473-479Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Interestingly, adenovirus particles are pro-inflammatory, and when not delivering PDGF-B, will inhibit repair, consistent with prolonging the inflammatory phase.21Liechty KW Sablich TJ Adzick NS Crombleholme TM Recombinant adenoviral mediated gene transfer in ischemic impaired wound healing.Wound Repair Regen. 1999; 7: 148-153Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar However, when the adenoviral vector delivered the PDGF-B gene, a single application augmented the inflammatory phase and led to enhanced net matrix deposition, resulting in accelerated closure of compromised animal wounds.22Doukas J Chandler LA Gonzalez AM Gu D Hoganson DK Ma C Nguyen T Printz MA Nesbit M Herlyn M Crombleholme TM Aukerman SL Sosnowski BA Pierce GF Matrix immobilization enhances the tissue repair activity of growth factor gene therapy vectors.Hum Gene Ther. 2001; 12: 783-798Crossref PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar Intuitively, it may be of concern to add inflammation inducers such as the PDGF-B gene and adenovirus to wounds at risk for chronic inflammation. However, the inflammation induced by PDGF-BB protein and adenovirus is self-limiting, and PDGF-BB protein leads to progression to the next phase of repair, rather than inhibiting progression.23Pierce GF Tarpley JE Allman RM Goode PS Serdar CM Morris B Mustoe TA Vande Berg J Tissue repair processes in healing chronic pressure ulcers treated with recombinant platelet-derived growth factor BB.Am J Pathol. 1994; 145: 1399-1410PubMed Google Scholar, 24Pierce GF Tarpley JE Tseng J Bready J Chang D Kenney W Rudolph R Robson M Vande Berg J Reid P Kaufman S Farrell CL Detection of PDGF-AA in actively healing human wounds treated with recombinant PDGF-BB and absence of PDGF in chronic nonhealing wounds.J Clin Invest. 1995; 96: 1336-1350Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar This may be due, in part, to the ability of PDGF to more selectively stimulate fibronectin-specific integrin receptors on wound fibroblasts, in contrast to the more generalized integrin up-regulation induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines.25Gailit J Xu J Bueller H Clark RA Platelet-derived growth factor and inflammatory cytokines have differential effects on the expression of integrins alpha 1 beta 1 and alpha 5 beta 1 by human dermal fibroblasts in vitro.J Cell Physiol. 1996; 169: 281-289Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Fibronectin is a critical cell migration-friendly constituent of the provisional extracellular matrix.Other treatment strategies for nonhealing diabetic wounds include administering proteases and protease inhibitors,26Pilcher BK Wang M Qin XJ Parks WC Senior RM Welgus HG Role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibition in cutaneous wound healing and allergic contact hypersensitivity.Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999; 878: 12-24Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar and covering the wound in an artificial skin, ostensibly to down-regulate the chronic inflammatory state.27Brem H Balledux J Bloom T Kerstein MD Hollier L Healing of diabetic foot ulcers and pressure ulcers with human skin equivalent: a new paradigm in wound healing.Arch Surg. 2000; 135: 627-634Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar Attempting to change protease/anti-protease levels are challenging within the wound microenvironment, because both activities are essential for normal repair,28Grillo HC Gross J Collagenolytic activity during mammalian wound repair.Dev Biol. 1967; 15: 300-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar, 29Madden JW Peacock EE Studies on the biology of collagen during wound healing. 3. Dynamic metabolism of scar collagen and remodeling of dermal wounds.Ann Surg. 1971; 174: 511-520Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar but are subject to critical spatial and temporal regulation within the wound.26Pilcher BK Wang M Qin XJ Parks WC Senior RM Welgus HG Role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibition in cutaneous wound healing and allergic contact hypersensitivity.Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999; 878: 12-24Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar, 30Madlener M Parks WC Werner S Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their physiological inhibitors (TIMPs) are differentially expressed during excisional skin wound repair.Exp Cell Res. 1998; 242: 201-210Crossref PubMed Scopus (282) Google ScholarThe Roles of Inflammation and Proteases in Tissue Repair: the Precarious Spatiotemporal BalanceInflammation in normal wound healing is a two-edged sword: it is essential, but like proteases, must be tightly regulated both temporally and spatially. Any pathological process that interferes with this self-limited physiological process can result in a nonhealing wound because of net destruction of soluble growth factors and matrix elements. The importance of the inflammatory phase was shown by Liebovich and Ross,31Leibovich SJ Ross R The role of the macrophage in wound repair. A study with hydrocortisone and antimacrophage serum.Am J Pathol. 1975; 78: 71-100PubMed Google Scholar who found that monocytes were essential for normal wound healing. Nagaoka and colleagues32Nagaoka T Kaburagi Y Hamaguchi Y Hasegawa M Takehara K Steeber DA Tedder TF Sato S Delayed wound healing in the absence of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 or L-selectin expression.Am J Pathol. 2000; 157: 237-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar recently demonstrated that ICAM-1 knockout mice had delayed wound healing manifested by decreased wound leukocyte accumulation. PDGF was able to normalize the healing, consistent with its recognized ability to stimulate leukocyte chemotaxis and activation. Alternatively, addition of activated fibroblasts directly to wounds was shown to circumvent the need for an inflammatory process, and led directly to rapid granulation tissue formation.33McClain SA Simon M Jones E Nandi A Gailit JO Tonnesen MG Newman D Clark RA Mesenchymal cell activation is the rate-limiting step of granulation tissue induction.Am J Pathol. 1996; 149: 1257-1270PubMed Google ScholarThus, self-resolving inflammation is a normal and necessary prerequisite to fibroblast activation and net matrix synthesis. In contrast, prolonged expression of pharmacological levels of granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor in rodent wounds results in sustained inflammation via prolonged residence of neutrophils and monocytes, abrogating normal healing (unpublished observations). Similarly, in diabetes, a disordered and more self-sustained inflammatory response, induced at least in part by AGEs, may contribute to many of the tissue injury complications, including nephropathy, vasculopathy, retinopathy, and nonhealing wounds.Imbalances in wound proteases and their inhibitors, because of sustained production of inflammatory mediators and influx of inflammatory cells, prevent matrix synthesis and remodeling, essential for progression to a healed wound.26Pilcher BK Wang M Qin XJ Parks WC Senior RM Welgus HG Role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibition in cutaneous wound healing and allergic contact hypersensitivity.Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999; 878: 12-24Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar, 30Madlener M Parks WC Werner S Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their physiological inhibitors (TIMPs) are differentially expressed during excisional skin wound repair.Exp Cell Res. 1998; 242: 201-210Crossref PubMed Scopus (282) Google Scholar, 34Parks WC Matrix metalloproteinases in repair.Wound Repair Regen. 1999; 7: 423-432Crossref PubMed Scopus (329) Google Scholar, 35Mast BA Schultz GS Interactions of cytokines, growth factors, and proteases in acute and chronic wounds.Wound Repair Regen. 1996; 4: 411-420Crossref PubMed Scopus (441) Google Scholar Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are members of the zinc-dependent endopeptidase family, contain at least 20 members, and can degrade most extracellular matrix constituents. MMPs have been recognized as normal constituents in the wound-healing process for many years).28Grillo HC Gross J Collagenolytic activity during mammalian wound repair.Dev Biol. 1967; 15: 300-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar, 29Madden JW Peacock EE Studies on the biology of collagen during wound healing. 3. Dynamic metabolism of scar collagen and remodeling of dermal wounds.Ann Surg. 1971; 174: 511-520Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar Specific expression of MMPs is essential for cellular migration into the wound milieu, but is closely regulated to permit provisional matrix deposition as healing progresses.26Pilcher BK Wang M Qin XJ Parks WC Senior RM Welgus HG Role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibition in cutaneous wound healing and allergic contact hypersensitivity.Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999; 878: 12-24Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar, 35Mast BA Schultz GS Interactions of cytokines, growth factors, and proteases in acute and chronic wounds.Wound Repair Regen. 1996; 4: 411-420Crossref PubMed Scopus (441) Google Scholar In elegant studies by Dumin and colleagues,36Dumin JA, Dickeson SK, Stricker TP, Bhattacharyya-Pakrasi M, Roby JD, Santoro SA, Parks WC: Procollagenase-1 (MMP-1) binds the alpha 2 beta 1 integrin upon release from keratinocytes migrating on type 1 collagen. J Biol Chem 2001 (In press)Google Scholar a trimolecular complex consisting of the MMP, a cell surface integrin, and the matrix substrate has been shown to provide enzyme at the point of cellular contact with substrate. Anchoring the MMP to the cell provides proteolytic activity in a highly regulated manner, at the point of cell contact with the matrix.Several groups have associated increased levels of proteases, including MMPs with wound inflammatory cells (leukocytes and monocytes), and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6.35Mast BA Schultz GS Interactions of cytokines, growth factors, and proteases in acute and chronic wounds.Wound Repair Regen. 1996; 4: 411-420Crossref PubMed Scopus (441) Google Scholar, 37Trengrove NJ Bielefeldt-Ohmann H Stacey MC Mitogenic activity and cytokine levels in non-healing and healing chronic leg ulcers.Wound Repair Regen. 2000; 8: 13-25Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α play a role in the normal healing response,38Hubner G Brauchle M Smola H Madlener M Fassler R Werner S Differential regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines during wound healing in normal and glucocorticoid-treated mice.Cytokine. 1996; 8: 548-556Crossref PubMed Scopus (384) Google Scholar but when secreted within the wound at high levels for longer periods of time, stimulate excess protease activities. MMPs were detected at elevated concentrations in human nonhealing wounds by Wysocki and colleagues39Wysocki AB Staiano-Coico L Grinnell F Wound fluid from chronic leg ulcers contains elevated levels of metalloproteinases MMP-2 and MMP-9.J Invest Dermatol. 1993; 101: 64-68Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar (MMP-2 and MMP-9, gelatinases A and B). Subsequently, others found that chronic wounds contained spatially and temporally differentially regulated MMPs,40Saarialho-Kere UK Pentland AP Birkedal-Hansen H Parks WC Welgus HG Distinct populations of basal keratinocytes express stromelysin-1 and stromelysin-2 in chronic wounds.J Clin Invest. 1994; 94: 79-88Crossref PubMed Scopus (203) Google Scholar and that levels of MMP inhibitors were decreased.41Bullen EC Longaker MT Updike DL Benton R Ladin D Hou Z Howard EW Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 is decreased and activated gelatinases are increased in chronic wounds.J Invest Dermatol. 1995; 104: 236-240Crossref PubMed Scopus (221) Google Scholar Trengrove and colleagues42Trengrove NJ Stacey MC MacAuley S Bennett N Gibson J Burslem F Murphy G Schultz G Analysis of the acute and chronic wound environments: the role of proteases and their inhibitors.Wound Repair Regen. 1999; 7: 442-452Crossref PubMed Scopus (691) Google Scholar conducted a well-controlled study in patients with venous stasis ulcers, and showed elevated wound MMP levels decreased after the onset of healing.MMPs such as MMP-1 (collagenase-1) are regulated within wounds via an nuclear factor-κB pathway, possibly triggered by interleukin-1α, as well as through the MAP kinase pathways, stimulated by growth factors and cytokines.43Xu J Clark RA Parks WC p38 mitogen-activated kinase is a bidirectional regulator of human fibroblast collagenase-1 induction by three-dimensional collagen lattices.Biochem J. 2001; 355: 437-447Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 44Kheradmand F Werner E Tremble P Symons M Werb Z Role of Rac1 and oxygen radicals in collagenase-1 expression induced by cell shape change.Science. 1998; 280: 898-902Crossref PubMed Scopus (329) Google Scholar Similarly, TNF-α indirectly stimulates MMP-2 (type IV collagenase) activation within wounds via an nuclear factor-κB pathway.45Han YP Tuan TL Wu H Hughes M Garner WL TNF-alpha stimulates activation of pro-MMP2 in human skin through NF-(kappa)B mediated induction of MT1-MMP.J Cell Sci. 2001; 114: 131-139PubMed Google Scholar Further, the provisional matrix proteoglycan dermatan sulfate can activate this pathway, leading to endothelial cell ICAM up-regulation, required for leukocyte influx into the wound.46Penc SF Pomahac B Eriksson E Detmar M Gallo RL Dermatan sulfate activates nuclear factor-kappa B and induces endothelial and circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1.J Clin Invest. 1999; 103: 1329-1335Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar Thus, nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways are triggered by, and mediate, numerous pro-inflammatory activities, which may contribute to a sustained inflammatory state.Pro-inflammatory Cytokines, AGE-RAGE Axis, and Proteases: a Unifying Hypothesis for Nonhealing Diabetic Wounds?In human nonhealing wounds, including diabetic ulcers, multiple deviations from normal healing have been identified. Few would dispute that most chronic human wounds are characterized by a chronic inflammatory state, manifested by imbalances in 1) proteases and their anti-proteases, and 2) pro-inflammatory cytokines and their natural inhibitors. These imbalances are central to most chronic wounds, and, in fact, are found in chronic inflammation in other tissues as well. Chronic wounds in diabetics, however, also contain RAGE ligands, which further tip the balance toward a chronic inflammatory state.The db/db mouse model47Coleman D Diabetes-obesity syndromes in mice.Diabetes. 1982; 31: 1-6Crossref PubMed Google Scholar has been used extensively to probe the pathophysiology of chronic diabetic wounds in humans. However, caution is warranted in extrapolating db/db mouse findings directly to humans with diabetes. The db/db mouse defect is because of a deficiency of the leptin receptor, and is caused by a point mutation at a splice donor site that reduces expression of the long isoform of the receptor.48Chua Jr, SC Chung WK Wu-Peng XS Zhang Y Liu SM Tartaglia L Leibel RL Phenotypes of mouse diabetes and rat fatty due to mutations in the OB (leptin) receptor.Science. 1996; 16: 994-996Crossref Scopus (1028) Google Scholar, 49Lee GH Proenca R Montez JM Carroll KM Darvishzadeh JG Lee JI Friedman JM Abnormal splicing of the leptin receptor in diabetic mice.Nature. 1996; 15: 632-635Crossref Scopus (2095) Google Scholar However, the human equivalent of leptin receptor deficiency results in obesity and pituitary dysfunction.50Clement K Vaisse C Lahlou N Cabrol S Pelloux V Cassuto D Gourmelen M Dina C Chambaz J Lacorte JM Basdevant A Bougneres P Lebouc Y Froguel P Guy-Grand B A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction.Nature. 1998; 26: 398-401Google Scholar These differences notwithstanding, the db/db mouse model has impaired wound healing that is responsive to intervention. Greenhalgh and colleagues,51Greenhalgh DG Sprugel KH Murray MJ Ross R PDGF and FGF stimulate wound healing in the genetically diabetic mouse.Am J Pathol. 1990; 136: 1235-1246PubMed Google Scholar and Tsuboi and Rifkin52Tsuboi R Rifkin DB Recombinant basic fibroblast growth factor stimulates wound healing in healing-impaired db/db mice.J Exp Med. 1990; 172: 245-251Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar were the first to show that the impaired healing could be reversed by polypeptide growth factors, including fibroblast growth factor-2 and PDGF-BB, setting the stage for the subsequent successful use of PDGF-BB in human diabetic ulcers. Others have shown the decreased early inflammatory cell influx, and excess pro-inflammatory cytokines and metalloproteases observed by Goova and colleagues53Fahey TJ Sadaty A Jones WG Barber A Smoller B Shires GT Diabetes impairs the late inflammatory response to wound healing.J Surg Res. 1991; 50: 308-313Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (221) Google Scholar, 54Wetzler C Kampfer H Stallmeyer B Pfeilschifter J Frank S Large and sustained induction of chemokines during impaired wound healing in the genetically diabetic mouse: prolonged persistence of neutrophils and macrophages during the late phase of repair.J Invest Dermatol. 2000; 115: 245-253Crossref PubMed Scopus (419) Google Scholar, 55Neely AN Clendening CE Gardner J Greenhalgh DG Gelatinase activities in wounds of healing impaired mice versus wounds of non-healing-impaired mice.J Burn Care Rehab. 2000; 21: 395-402Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar as well as decreased fibroblast growth factor, PDGF, and PDGF receptor expression in wounds from db/db mice.56Werner S Breeden M Hubner G Greenhalgh DG Longaker MT Induction of keratinocyte growth factor expression is reduced and delayed during wound healing in the genetically diabetic mouse.J Invest Dermatol. 1994; 103: 469-473Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar, 57Beer HD Longaker MT Werner S Reduced expression of PDGF and PDGF receptors during impaired wound healing.J Invest Dermatol. 1997; 109: 132-138Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar In the related ob/ob mouse, which is deficient in leptin, Goodson and Hunt58Goodson III, WH Hunt TK Wound collagen accumulation in obese hyperglycemic mice.Diabetes" @default.
• W115536111 created "2016-06-24" @default.
• W115536111 creator A5076779935 @default.
• W115536111 date "2001-08-01" @default.
• W115536111 modified "2023-10-16" @default.
• W115536111 title "Inflammation in Nonhealing Diabetic Wounds" @default.
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