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• W1181530924 abstract "INTRODUCTIONRecent scholarship has offered a revisionist history of enforcement provisions of Title VII of Civil Rights Act of 1964.1 The revisionists contend that supporters' tactical retreat from administrative to judicial enforcement of Act betrayed fundamental lessons of how to obtain effective compliance with state fair employment practice laws. The lesson from New Deal, which energized both supporters and opponents of Title VII, was that only a strong administrative agency like National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) could effectively bring businesses into line with new prohibitions against discrimination. Instead, Republican opposition to Title VII led to watered-down role that Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received under statute as first enacted, and which, although augmented by amendments, continues to stop well short of adjudication with respect to private employers. The EEOC today exercises this power only with respect to federal employees, confining it to role of investigating and conciliating charges of discrimination against private employers.2The revisionist conclusions have much to be said for them, both in amplifying historical record and state law background of provisions that came to be enacted in Title VII, and in critique of hybrid system of administrative investigation and conciliation followed by judicial enforcement of statute. Reform of cumbersome scheme of time limits, procedures, and remedies under Title VII is long overdue. Nevertheless, revisionist accounts leave out a crucial feature of Title VII as civil rights legislation: it gives control over enforcement of statute to individuals whose civil rights have been violated. The long history of civil rights, dating back to Reconstruction, makes them quintessentially private rights, whose exercise and enforcement should depend primarily on initiative of individuals who bear those rights.3 Public enforcement no doubt remains necessary, and it has an equally long and distinguished pedigree in civil rights law, but it cannot entirely displace individual control over individual rights. To do so is to transform nature of those rights: from private to public, from individuals to groups, from legal control by plaintiffs to political control by administrators. Once identified as a civil right-a right inherent in citizenship-the right to equal opportunity must remain under control of individual citizens themselves.Part I of this Article examines recent revisionist history, recognizing insights it has offered, but raising questions about perspective that it takes. No one can doubt retreat of civil rights supporters in intense debates over Title VII, both in 1964 when Civil Rights Act was passed and in 1972 when Title VII was expanded and amended. In both instances, EEOC enforcement stopped well short of adjudication of claims against private employers. This result marked a sharp break with state fair employment practice laws. It did not, however, represent any departure from traditional enforcement of civil rights laws. Part II takes up that tradition, beginning with original civil rights acts passed in wake of Civil War and ratification of Reconstruction amendments. That history goes back to contrast between enforcement through the machineless functioning of rule of law,4 by a combination of public and private litigation, and limited duration of extraordinary measures undertaken by Freedmen's Bureau and Union Army in immediate aftermath of war. Some historians find, in this limited commitment to these measures, seeds of failure of Reconstruction.5 They might well be right, but abandonment of administrative enforcement by these means restored default mechanism of enforcing private rights: through litigation. Part III finds same dynamic in debates over Title VII and links it to nature of civil rights. …" @default.
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• W1181530924 date "2015-05-01" @default.
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• W1181530924 title "Private Rights and Private Actions: The Legacy of Civil Rights in the Enforcement of Title VII" @default.
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