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• W120086543 abstract "This paper presents a theory of autonomous action that combines the perspectives of three disciplines: neuropsychology, AI planning, and control system technology. Each discipline brings complementary contributions to the common goal of understanding the nature of autonomous action, and the combined theory requires extensions to each of the component theories. Our overall goal is to: Extend AI planning methods to perform the functions of the neuropsychological models within the context of real-time, closed-loop control applications. The model presented in this paper provides a mapping between the theories that supports the further interdisciplinary exchange of ideas. Related interdisciplinary efforts have been discussed by Levinson[13, 14, 15] and by Spector, Grafman, and Hendler [21, 8, 9]. We begin by considering humans as the gold standard for autonomous systems. Human autonomy requires the integration of default and deliberate behavior. Default behavior is effective in routine situations, but it often must be deliberately modified for use in novel situations. The default programs are welllearned, automatic reactions that are driven by the presence of strong sensory data. In contrast, the deliberate programs are unlearned, novel responses that are driven by goals in the absence of strong sensory stimuli. The flexibility to deliberately modify default behavior allows humans to function in novel conditions. People with frontal lobe damage often have difficulty modifying default behavior in novel conditions and therefore have difficulty living socially-independent lives. They often respond mechanically to immediate sensory stimuli without regard to the effects of their actions. These patients can score well on IQ tests, but have difficulties planning and executing daily activities for shopping, cooking, washing and business. We propose that runtime deliberation is required for autonomous control systems to perform successfully in novel operating conditions. We define the term deliberation to mean a time-consuming decision making process that considers the future. The word deliberation comes from the term de libra, which means from weight or measurement. Thus, a deliberate choice is a measured selection, where the choices are measured against a set of goals. Without deliberation, modern control systems are also data-driven and reactive, much like frontal lobe patients. At NASA, we are developing autonomous instruments and spacecraft that require the flexibility of humans to operate in unpredictable conditions. We are currently developing a bioreactor instrument that maintains the environmental conditions for a vessel that grows bacteria. The system uses 16 sensors including temperature, pH, and light levels, and it uses 16 effectors to control the heat, light, and nutrients. The experiments can run 24 hours a day for 2 weeks, so humans cannot be present at all times. Our primary control programs involve maintaining and changing setpoints, recalibrating the sensors during an experiment, and diagnosing and recovering from hardware failures. We are also applying the model towards a cognitive rehabilitation tool for the assessment and treatment of frontal lobe damage. This healthcare application uses our model to simulate the generation, evaluation, and execution of daily plans for independent living. Although the term autonomous is widely used, it has no formal definition and is often confused with the term automatic. It is difficult to develop and evaluate autonomous systems without a solid definition of the term autonomous. We have adopted a definition motivated by the clinical evaluation of brain injury patients: Autonomy is a measure of a system’s dependence on external assistance for achieving its goals. This is the essential metric for determining whether a patient can take care of themselves and live independently after traumatic brain injury. Since no person or thing can maintain absolute independence, autonomy must be measured relative to a set of goals and operating conditions. As the goals and conditions become varied and complex, and involve resource constraints, then independence becomes more difficult. An autonomous system with multiple goals, resource conflicts, and potential hardware failure requires an ability to detect and correct its own errors. Autonomy is also a multidimensional property rather than a true or false proposition. When assessing the effects of traumatic brain injury, human autonomy is often described along dimensions that include the frequency that assistance is required, the conditions that cause assistance to be required, and the amount of assistance required[16]." @default.
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• W120086543 date "1995-01-01" @default.
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• W120086543 title "An Interdisciplinary Theory of Autonomous Action" @default.
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