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• W1557816076 abstract "In the Late Empire, the level of morale in the armies is debated. A negative view, based on imperial laws, which suggest that military service was unpopular, would urge that many soldiers were reluctant participants. If, however, this evidence is placed in context, it is legitimate to postulate that military morale remained high, with units proud of their reputations and individuals keen to demonstrate their prowess. Morale was maintained through a combination of customary top-down and bottom-up methods inherited from the Early Empire, but with Christianity added as a potent replacement for the varied religious devotions of earlier periods. Generals were primarily responsible for inspiring their troops, as was recognized in the military handbooks such as the Strategikon of Maurice. A reputation for delivering victory was a powerful asset, as was the ability to convey an aura of calm even under pressure, as Belisarius did in Rome throughout 537 CE. Attention to the men's welfare gave important support: the wounded must receive proper attention and the dead must be buried with appropriate honor (Maur. Strat. 7B.6). Bravery or exceptional conduct in battle might be rewarded by promotion, for example, into a general's personal bodyguard or through tangible gifts such as special weapons or a share of booty (Procop. Wars 7.1.8; 8.31.9; Th. Sim. 2.6.10–2.6.11). In the immediate lead-up to battle, speeches were regarded as one mechanism to rouse spirits in the face of possible death, and there was advice about the various rhetorical strategies that might be employed – track record, numbers, divine favor, critical need. Soldiers steeled themselves for the encounter through chants, for example, the barritus adopted by the Romans from their Germanic neighbors; generals were advised that the mournful Kyrie Eleison, the chant beseeching God's mercy, might actually depress the men's fighting spirit. Another challenge came from the enemy's tactics: the pre-battle howling of the Avars was known to disconcert those unfamiliar with its use. Morale was also underpinned from below. Men fought in units, where they had usually lived together over months or years; they supported each other and sustained their collective reputation, sometimes to the extent of preferring to die bravely than to survive ingloriously. Whether the formal contubernium system persisted from the earlier empire is unknown, but it would be surprising if there were not some standard arrangement for the collective organization of eating and sleeping. Throughout Antiquity, it was accepted that divine favor granted victory and this might be demonstrated through religious devices: the cult of Sol Invictus espoused by Aurelian; the patronage of Christ claimed by Constantine I and symbolized by the chi-rho sign painted on his men's shields and the use of the labarum standard; or the eunuch Narses's reputation for communing with the Virgin Mary. For particular campaigns, a positive oracle or the blessing of a spiritual leader might be secured, for example, Theodosius I's consultation of John of Thebes before the campaign against Eugenius (Thdrt. HE 5.24). Armies might be accompanied by icons: before the Battle of Solachon in 586 a local bishop paraded an acheiropoietos image of Christ through Philippicus's army (Th. Sim. 2.3.4–2.3.9). Christianity had a particular impact on morale during sieges: bishops might parade icons around the walls and reassure the defenders that God was on their side, as Patriarch Sergius did at Constantinople in 626 (Th. Sync. 305.13–305.28). At Nisibis, Bishop Jacob contributed directly to the repulse of the Persian attack in 337–338 and again, post-mortem, in 351 (Thdrt. HE 1.11–1.12). Stories of special divine protection for particular cities sprang up: Christ's letter to Abgar guaranteed protection for Edessa, a promise that Khusro was determined to disprove (Procop. Wars 2.12), while at Thessalonica the local bishop compiled a catalog of the miraculous interventions of their patron saint Demetrius against Slav and Avar threats. See also Psychological Warfare ; Recruitment, Organization: Late Empire ; Recruitment, Social and Geographical Aspects: Late Empire ; Speech, adlocutio: Late Empire ; War Cry ." @default.
• W1557816076 created "2016-06-24" @default.
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• W1557816076 date "2015-03-03" @default.
• W1557816076 modified "2023-10-11" @default.
• W1557816076 title "Morale: Late Empire" @default.
• W1557816076 doi "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118318140.wbra1024" @default.
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