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• W1558477754 abstract "INTRODUCTION Currently, the number of female offenders continues to increase while the overall crime rate drops. (1) Unfortunately, the most recent report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics does not clarify the reasons underlying this trend. (2) Yet this trend is not new. Between 1960 and 1974, the number of arrests for women increased by 108 percent, with a corresponding increase of only twenty-three percent for men. (3) Since the mid-1970s, the dramatic upswing in the number of female offenders has caused a wide variety of scholars and commentators to attempt to explain these increases. (4) In comparison to male offenders, relatively few studies have been conducted regarding female offenders. Additionally, the study of the relationship between race and criminal justice has produced a solid field of research for African-Americans, (5) while studies concerning Latina (6) and Native American women (7) are less numerous; nevertheless, these studies have been and will continue to be explored. Furthermore, considerations of class within the criminal justice system have also received some study. (8) A majority of these studies fail to address the reality that female offenders processed through the American criminal justice system are women with a distinct racial and economic status. The impact of race and class must be accounted for in studies on female offenders to make such fractured images whole. (9) Without an understanding of the correlation between these factors in the justice system, it becomes harder to address the issue of increased female offending in a productive manner. (10) If programs and policies aimed at decreasing the number of women in the criminal justice system are going to work, they will need to account for the differences among female offenders. (11) This Essay attempts to pull together the various threads of thought regarding the relationships between gender, race, and class within the justice system, and suggests possible patterns that could be used to create holistic images of female offenders. Hopefully, a clearer understanding will foster more effective programs or policies to lower the number of women processed through the criminal justice system. Part I provides a brief overview of the various explanations used over time to account for criminal behavior by women. Part II details the ways in which gender can affect the processes of the criminal justice system. Part III discusses the impact that race can have on the female offender's experience in the system. Part IV briefly overviews the types of influences that class status produces. Part V concludes that while some research has been done combining these factors, additional research, using all of these factors, is required in order to achieve a more accurate picture of female offenders in America. I. OVERVIEW OF FEMALE CRIMINALITY THEORIES Theories regarding the causes of female offending have varied greatly over time. Yet, even with these temporal differences, the majority of these theories can usually be grouped into one of three categories--biological, psychological, or socioeconomic theories. (12) Nonetheless, far from being distinctly separate categories, these three theories often overlap. Attempts to explain criminal behavior by women began as early as the turn of twentieth century. (13) The first scientific study of female offenders came in 1894, with the publication of The Female Offender. (14) In this study, the authors, Caesar Lombroso and William Ferrero, examined both the skeletal remains of female offenders and the bodies of living female prisoners. (15) Lombroso and Ferrero concluded that the number and types of physical abnormalities in female offenders indicated the extent to which women were predisposed to criminal acts; the authors even attempted to determine which particular criminal acts women were more likely to commit. (16) Due to its methodological deficiencies, (17) however, this study was quickly rejected. …" @default.
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• W1558477754 date "2003-01-01" @default.
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• W1558477754 title "Snapshots: Holistice Images of Female Offenders in the Criminal Justice System" @default.
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