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• W1567978937 abstract "Working Memory Load Affects Device-Specific but Not Task-Specific Error Rates Maartje G. A. Ament (M.Ament@ucl.ac.uk) Anna L. Cox (Anna.Cox@ucl.ac.uk) Ann Blandford (A. Blandford@ucl.ac.uk) Duncan Brumby (Brumby@cs.ucl.ac.uk) UCL Interaction Centre University College London Gower Street London, WC1E 6BT Abstract Human error in routine procedural tasks is often attributed to momentary failures to remember what step to perform. We argue that task-specific steps, which can be defined as actions required to achieve a particular goal across a variety of different devices, are far less prone to error than device- specific steps, which can be defined as actions that are required for the operation of the device but do not directly contribute to the goal. An experiment is reported that supports this distinction, showing that device-specific steps are more error prone than task-specific steps. Moreover, we argue that these errors reflect a failure of memory because the error rate for device-specific steps was sensitive to increased working memory load, while the error rate for task-specific steps was not. The current work demonstrates that a distinction between device- and task-specific steps can be effective in explaining error patterns observed on a specific task. Keywords: human error; device-specific error; working memory load. Introduction While routine procedural errors occur only occasionally, they are persistent. A growing body of empirical work has studied these errors in the laboratory. Most of them have focussed on the post-completion error (PCE) (e.g. Byrne & Bovair, 1997; Chung & Byrne, 2008; Li, Blandford, Cairns, & Young, 2008), a cognitive slip that occurs when the final step in a task is omitted after the main goal has already been completed. The PCE is theoretically well understood. An influential account is the memory-for-goals model developed by Altmann and Trafton (2002). This account assumes that goals are declarative memory representations (chunks) with an associated activation level. The interference level is defined as the ‘collective effect of distractor goals’. In order to direct behaviour, the relevant goal needs to be above the interference level. In order to overcome the interference level, the activation of goals must be strengthened. A goal that is retrieved more often or the most recently retrieved subgoal will have a higher activation value than others with less history. Associative links between goals allow activation to spread to other goals. The PC step is usually remembered because it receives associative activation from the step preceding it. Moreover, Byrne and Bovair (1997) have argued that upon completion of the main goal, the sources of activation for the PC subgoal are reduced, leading to lower activation on the PC subgoal, often to a point where it cannot be retrieved. Another step that is associated with a relatively high error rate is the device-initialisation (DI) step. A device initialisation step is an action that must be executed before the main task steps can be completed (e.g. pressing a ‘mode’ key before setting the alarm on a digital watch). Li et al. (2008) and Hiltz, Back & Blandford (2010) found relatively high error rates on both the post-completion and the device- initialisation steps. However, this error is less well understood, and it is not clear how the memory-for-goals model would account for it. For this error, the main goal has not yet been completed, so should still provide activation for the device-initialisation step. A common factor that the PC step and the DI step share is that they are both device-specific (Cox & Young, 2000). This means that they do not make a direct contribution towards the main goal, but are only required for the correct operation of the device. Task-specific steps, on the other hand, do make a direct contribution towards the main goal and are required regardless of the type of device they are carried out on. Consider the example of using a state-of-the- art induction hob. A typical task-specific step may be to increase or decrease the power output by pressing the ‘+’ or ‘-’ button, whereas a device-specific step may be to press the selector button to cycle through the different hobs until you have selected the one for which you want to adjust the power. While a number of previous studies have discussed concepts similar to device- and task-specific steps (e.g. Cox & Young, 2000; Kirschenbaum, Gray, Ehret, & Miller, 1996; Gray, 2000), this is a novel approach to explaining routine procedural errors. In this paper, we propose that the distinction between task-specific and device-specific steps can explain why some steps in a procedure appear to be more error prone than others. Our account relies on the user having a task model (how to do the task) and a device model (how to do the task using a particular device), two concepts widely used" @default.
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• W1567978937 date "2010-01-01" @default.
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• W1567978937 title "Working Memory Load Affects Device-Specific but Not Task-Specific Error Rates" @default.
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