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• W163635521 abstract "The century-old nomenclature that was used to denote regions of the bird brain was based on wrong assumptions of homology to mammalian brain regions. The traditional view held that most of the avian forebrain (cerebrum/telencephalon) was predominantly made of parts of the basal ganglia with only a small part in the roof of the forebrain constituting a cortical pallium (Figure 1 a). Edinger, father of comparative neuroanatomy, noted that brain evolution from fishes through mammals followed a chronological order: basic brain structures such as the spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, cerebellum and cerebrum occurred in all, with cerebral structures being progressively added in a step-wise manner resulting in a correspondingly increased encephalization. Thus ‘primitive’ cerebral fish structures were found in all higher vertebrates, while newer cerebral structures were added in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The forebrain of stem reptiles, the amniotic ancestor of both birds and mammals, was said to consist of a meagre cortical mantle called the pallium, and a disproportionately large basal ganglia. In mammals, the former evolved to become the enormously hypertrophied and elaborate multi-layered neocortex (Figure 1 b), responsible for complex behaviour such as learning and memory. In birds, however, the latter structure became the large-sized and complex basal ganglia (Figure 1 a), thought to be important for instinctive behaviour. The avian forebrain was accordingly classified into regions with the suffix ‘striatum’, indicating ‘striatal’ nature. The avian cerebrum constitutes five main regions: the paleostriatum, archistriatum, neostriatum hyperstriatum and ectostriatum (Figure 1 a). Only the dorsal-most part of the hyperstriatum constituted the pallium. All the other structures were considered homologous to the mammalian basal ganglia (Figure 1 a). The ‘paleo’ (oldest) striatum was found in fishes, the ‘archi’ (archaic) striatum was added in amphibians, the ‘neo’ (new) striatum was a reptilian structure, while ‘hyper’(above) and ‘ecto’(outside), were exclusively bird structures. A name for a particular brain area denotes origin, type, identity, function and relationality to other brain areas. Bird neuroscience suffered under the bane of erroneous naming of brain regions for about a century. Preliminary research on the avian cerebrum soon made it clear that only the ventral part is striatal in nature. Evidence proving that the dorsal regions which made most of the cerebrum are in fact responsible for complex learningrelated behaviour and not just instinctive, stereotyped, vegetative behaviour, made nomenclature change imminent. For over five decades now, research in bird brain and behaviour using behavioural, lesionbehavioural, hodological and neurochemical methods has not only made it clear that birds are in no way inferior to mammals, but has also disproved that most of the avian cerebrum is only the basal ganglia, and shown that major parts are indeed comparable to the mammalian cortex, claustrum and amygdala. Neurochemical studies screening for neuronal enzymes and neurotransmitter profiles showed that only the medial and lateral parts of the paleostriatum are striatal in nature (Figure 2 a), and suggested that the neostriatum, ectostriatum and hyperstriatum are cortical in nature. Subsequent studies profiling neuropeptides, and developmental studies using homeobox genes and transcription factors showed that ventral parts of the paleostriatum (paleostriatum primitivum and ventral paleostriatum) develop from the subpallium and are comparable to mammalian sub-pallial, pallidal structures: globus pallidus and ventral pallidum respectively (Figure 2 a, b). Pathwaytracing studies revealed discrete brain nuclei in the neostriatum, ectostriatum and hyperstriatum in birds where visual, auditory and somatosensory inputs from the brain stem terminate (Figure 2 a), comparable to layers of the cortex (Figure 2 b) in mammals. Instead of the layered cortical organization seen in mammals, birds have a nuclear organization of sensory processing centres." @default.
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• W163635521 date "2005-01-01" @default.
• W163635521 modified "2023-09-27" @default.
• W163635521 title "Avian brain nomenclature change" @default.
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