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• W1965964455 abstract "Background & Aims:Clostridium difficile–associated disease (CDAD) rates have been increasing. We sought to determine whether CDAD incidence has increased specifically in hospitalized patients with IBD. We also explored possible differences in the risk for and time to presentation of CDAD between IBD and non-IBD patients. Methods: We analyzed hospital admissions from 1998–2004 for demographics, length of stay, C difficile infections, and time from admission to a positive C difficile test. We calculated CDAD incidence for non-IBD, all IBD, CD, and UC admissions and used logistic regression to estimate the risk for CDAD. Results: CDAD incidence increased in each group and was higher in all IBD than non-IBD groups. During the observation period, CDAD rates approximately doubled in CD (9.5 to 22.3/1000 admissions) and tripled in UC (18.4 to 57.6/1000). Length of stay was similar among the groups. For all years combined, the adjusted odds ratios for CDAD in all IBD, CD, and UC admissions were 2.9 (95% confidence interval, 2.1–4.1), 2.1 (1.3–3.4), and 4.0 (2.4–6.6), respectively. The median times from admission to a positive C difficile test result for non-IBD, CD, and UC were 4.0, 0.8, and 0.5 days, respectively. Conclusions: CDAD incidence in IBD has increased and is higher than in the non-IBD population. IBD and UC patients in particular have a higher risk for CDAD. C difficile infections in IBD are confirmed predominantly within 48 hours of admission, suggesting most were acquired before hospitalization. Background & Aims:Clostridium difficile–associated disease (CDAD) rates have been increasing. We sought to determine whether CDAD incidence has increased specifically in hospitalized patients with IBD. We also explored possible differences in the risk for and time to presentation of CDAD between IBD and non-IBD patients. Methods: We analyzed hospital admissions from 1998–2004 for demographics, length of stay, C difficile infections, and time from admission to a positive C difficile test. We calculated CDAD incidence for non-IBD, all IBD, CD, and UC admissions and used logistic regression to estimate the risk for CDAD. Results: CDAD incidence increased in each group and was higher in all IBD than non-IBD groups. During the observation period, CDAD rates approximately doubled in CD (9.5 to 22.3/1000 admissions) and tripled in UC (18.4 to 57.6/1000). Length of stay was similar among the groups. For all years combined, the adjusted odds ratios for CDAD in all IBD, CD, and UC admissions were 2.9 (95% confidence interval, 2.1–4.1), 2.1 (1.3–3.4), and 4.0 (2.4–6.6), respectively. The median times from admission to a positive C difficile test result for non-IBD, CD, and UC were 4.0, 0.8, and 0.5 days, respectively. Conclusions: CDAD incidence in IBD has increased and is higher than in the non-IBD population. IBD and UC patients in particular have a higher risk for CDAD. C difficile infections in IBD are confirmed predominantly within 48 hours of admission, suggesting most were acquired before hospitalization. Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea (CDAD) has emerged as a major medical problem in the United States and throughout the world. Pseudomembranous colitis from C difficile infection can cause significant morbidity and death in hospitalized patients.1Dallal R.M. Harbrecht B.G. Boujoukas A.J. et al.Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications.Ann Surg. 2002; 235: 363-372Crossref PubMed Scopus (514) Google Scholar In the general hospital population, the incidence of CDAD continues to increase, with a doubling of cases between 1996–2003 on the basis of discharge diagnoses of short stay hospitals,2McDonald C.L. Owings M. Jernigan D.B. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged form U.S. short stay hospitals, 1996-2003.Emerg Infect Dis. 2006; 12: 409-415Crossref PubMed Google Scholar and an estimated 3 million cases of CDAD and colitis occur annually in the United States.3Hurley B.W. Nguyen C.C. The spectrum of pseudomembranous enterocolitis and antibiotic associated-diarrhea.Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 2177-2184Crossref PubMed Scopus (193) Google Scholar Recognized risk factors for infection include advanced age (>65 years old), recent (<2 months) broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy, long hospital stay, and presence of multiple comorbidities.2McDonald C.L. Owings M. Jernigan D.B. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged form U.S. short stay hospitals, 1996-2003.Emerg Infect Dis. 2006; 12: 409-415Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 4Bartlett J.G. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 334-339Crossref PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar, 5Barbut F. Petit J.C. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated infections.Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001; 7: 405-410Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Risk factors for fulminant C difficile colitis include immunosuppression and systemic infection.1Dallal R.M. Harbrecht B.G. Boujoukas A.J. et al.Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications.Ann Surg. 2002; 235: 363-372Crossref PubMed Scopus (514) Google Scholar, 4Bartlett J.G. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 334-339Crossref PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar Studies show that C difficile infections are becoming more severe and resistant to antibiotics, conferring a mortality rate of 1%–2% in such cases.5Barbut F. Petit J.C. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated infections.Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001; 7: 405-410Crossref PubMed Google ScholarPatients with CD and UC are hospitalized commonly with worsening diarrhea, which in many instances is attributable to progression of the underlying IBD, but it might also be the result of infection with enteric organisms or opportunistic agents such as cytomegalovirus and C difficile.6Meyer A.M. Ramzan N.N. Loftus Jr, E.V. et al.The diagnostic yield of stool pathogen studies during relapses of inflammatory bowel disease.J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004; 38: 772-775Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar Thus, prompt diagnosis and treatment of infection become paramount. Previous studies have reported that 5%–19% of patients admitted for relapsing IBD are positive for C difficile.6Meyer A.M. Ramzan N.N. Loftus Jr, E.V. et al.The diagnostic yield of stool pathogen studies during relapses of inflammatory bowel disease.J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004; 38: 772-775Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar, 7Mylonaki M. Langmead L. Pantes A. et al.Enteric infection in relapse of inflammatory bowel disease: importance of microbiological examination of stool.Euro J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004; 16: 775-778Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar However, trends in the incidence of CDAD over multiple years in hospitalized CD and UC patients have not been examined in detail.In this study, we sought to determine whether the incidence of CDAD in patients hospitalized for IBD has increased in recent years, as in the general medical population. We postulated that the incidence of CDAD might be higher in UC compared with CD because the latter condition in particular is treated often in the outpatient setting with antibiotics such as metronidazole, which is effective against C difficile. Moreover, on the basis of the observations that C difficile infection might cause diarrhea despite quiescent IBD or, alternatively, might precipitate a flare of UC or CD resulting in hospitalization, we also hypothesized that C difficile toxin positivity in these patients might occur on average within the first few days of admission, which suggests that the infection was acquired in the outpatient setting or perhaps during a previous hospitalization.Materials and MethodsWe performed a retrospective cohort study by using inpatient electronic medical records to determine the incidence of CDAD in hospitalized IBD patients. We obtained data from the Barnes-Jewish-Christian clinical data repository, a medical informatics industry-standard relational database containing information on diagnoses, International Classification of Diseases ninth revision admission and discharge codes, demographics, and laboratory test results for all admissions to Barnes-Jewish Hospital, a large tertiary care medical center, during a 7-year period from January 1, 1998–December 31, 2004. Demographic information available included age, gender, and race. Data extracted from this database were merged with results of positive C difficile laboratory tests linked by admission registration numbers.All subjects aged 10 years and older and both medical and surgical admissions were included. We used discharge International Classification of Diseases ninth revision codes to identify patients hospitalized with the primary diagnoses of CD and UC. In the event that an admission was coded for both CD and UC (n = 44), we reviewed medical records, including available history, radiography, and pathology, to clarify the diagnosis. Of these, 5 cases were indeterminate for either CD or UC and were excluded. We assigned each of the remaining 39 cases to either the CD or UC groups. Information on antibiotic and immunosuppressive medication use before admission was not available.The primary analysis compared CDAD incidence between non-IBD and all IBD admissions. All IBD was further subanalyzed as CD and UC versus the non-IBD group. To determine the incidence of CDAD in all groups, we calculated the ratio of number of admissions with a positive C difficile test result to the total number of admissions for each group, both by year and by all years combined, reported as cases per 1000 admissions. In June 2002, the hospital stool laboratory test for C difficile converted from a traditional cell cytotoxic culture assay that is sensitive to toxin B only to a C difficile toxin A/B II Enzyme Immunoassay (Techlab, Inc, Blacksburg, VA), which detects toxins A and B. We assumed that a positive stool test for C difficile by either method indicated infection with this organism. Positive C difficile test results that might have occurred before admission were not available. However, for all admissions in the database, any testing performed in the emergency department before hospitalization was captured in our data. Time, in days, to a positive C difficile test result was calculated by subtracting the date of admission from the first date of test positivity. After the first positive C difficile test result, any additional positive tests for the same admission were not included in the analysis. In both the UC and CD groups, time to test positivity was not normally distributed; therefore, a Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare time to test positivity between IBD and non-IBD cases. We calculated total length of stay (LOS), in days, by subtracting the date of admission from the date of discharge. LOS was not normally distributed and therefore was compared among the groups by using a Mann-Whitney U test. In addition, we calculated the LOS at risk, which is defined as number of days of hospitalization until a C difficile infection is diagnosed and excludes all subsequent days of hospitalization after infection is detected. For admissions in which no CDAD occurred, LOS and LOS at risk are equivalent. We analyzed the data first by using LOS and then repeated the analysis by using LOS at risk, but results were similar for both. Only results with LOS at risk are reported hereafter.Because recurrent C difficile infection might cause hospital readmission, we reviewed cases to ascertain whether the same subject was responsible for multiple admissions and repeat C difficile test positivity. We defined recurrent CDAD as readmission with a positive C difficile toxin within 60 days of a prior admission and reported results as percent of total CDAD cases for each group.We used Pearson χ2 testing and performed a univariate analysis to estimate the relative risks for C difficile infection among the groups. We then performed a multivariate analysis with logistic regression modeling to calculate odds ratios for C difficile infection, adjusting for other factors. For the multivariate analysis, we performed a nested case-control study in which 4 controls were chosen randomly for each C difficile positive case. We included all admission types. Matching of controls to cases, for example, by age or year of admission, was not performed to adjust for these variables of interest in the regression equation. We excluded all cases of repeat and recurrent C difficile positivity for any individual to maintain independence of events. For the logistic regression, the primary outcome of interest was a C difficile positive test result. The primary risk factor of interest was a diagnosis of IBD. UC and CD were assessed individually as risk factors in a separate analysis. We analyzed the following additional risk factors for CDAD as covariates in our regression equations: sex, defined as male or female; race, dichotomized as white or other; age, divided into 3 categories; Charlson score8Charlson M.E. Pompei P. Ales K.L. et al.A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and validation.J Chronic Dis. 1987; 40: 373-383Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (33348) Google Scholar, 9Deyo R.A. Cherkin D.C. Ciol M.A. Adapting a clinical comorbidity index for use with ICD-9-CM administrative databases.J Clin Epidemiol. 1992; 45: 613-619Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (8335) Google Scholar of medical comorbidity, divided into 4 categories; year of admission; and LOS at risk, categorized into 6 time intervals. We tested individual Charlson comorbidities in a separate model along with other co-factors as defined above.For multiple testing, a P value of <.01 was considered significant. The 95% confidence interval (95% CI) was provided where appropriate. We performed all analyses with statistical software packages SPSS version 13.1 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) and EpiInfo version 3.3.2 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA). The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Washington University School of Medicine.ResultsFor the 7 years studied, 357,242 admissions met inclusion criteria and were available for analysis. Demographic characteristics of the groups and a summary of C difficile testing results are shown in Table 1. Compared with the non-IBD population, admissions for both CD and UC were of younger age and had a higher proportion of white race. The UC group had a higher percentage of men compared with the non-IBD group. Although the mean LOS at risk was similar among the groups, a small difference of less than 1 day was detected between the all IBD and non-IBD groups, and this difference was statistically significant. Median LOS at risk was higher in the IBD groups. The median times from admission to a positive C difficile test result for CD, UC, and non-IBD patients were 0.8, 0.5, and 4.0 days, respectively, and this difference was statistically significant. For all IBD admissions, 63% of C difficile infections were positive within 48 hours of admission. In the non-IBD group, only 37% of CDAD diagnoses occurred within 48 hours of admission. Recurrent CDAD occurred in only 4 (0.1%) admissions for UC and CD during the study period. In contrast, recurrent C difficile infection was noted in 8.7% of cases in the non-IBD population.Table 1Characteristics of Study Groups, Barnes-Jewish Hospital, 1998–2004Non-IBD (n = 353,845)All IBD (n = 3397)CD (n = 2331)UC (n = 1066)Age, y Mean (range)54 (10–109)46aP < .001. (10–99)45aP < .001. (10–99)48aP < .001. (15–92)Male gender, %4142aP < .001.40bP < .02.47bP < .02.White race, %6284aP < .001.83aP < .001.87aP < .001.LOS at risk (days) Mean ± standard deviation5.7 ± 8.75.8 ± 5.8aP < .001.5.6 ± 5.5aP < .001.6.4 ± 6.3aP < .001. Median3.44.34.14.9C difficile stool test results No. positive (%)4363 (1.2)79 (2.3)37 (1.6)42 (3.9) Mean positive per year (range)623 (412–863)11.3 (2–24)5.3 (2–15)6.0 (0–11) No. with relapse (%)379 (8.7)4 (.05)3 (.08)1 (.02) Median time to positive test (days)4.00.8aP < .001.0.9aP < .001.0.5aP < .001.NOTE. Paired comparisons (χ2, Mann–Whitney U) made with non-IBD as reference.a P < .001.b P < .02. Open table in a new tab For all years combined, the incidences of CDAD in the non-IBD, all IBD, CD, and UC groups are shown in Figure 1. In univariate analysis, the relative risks for C difficile infection compared with non-IBD admissions were 1.9 (95% CI, 1.5–2.4), 1.3 (0.9–1.8), and 3.2 (2.4–4.3) for all IBD, CD, and UC, respectively. Compared with CD, the relative risk for CDAD in UC was 2.5 (1.6–4.0). Combining all groups and years, the overall rate of CDAD in our cohort was 12.4/1000 admissions. The incidences of CDAD by year for all 4 groups are shown in Figure 2. Comparing 1998 and 2004 data, CDAD incidence approximately doubled in the non-IBD group (8.5 to 15.9/1000 admissions) and CD group (9.5 to 22.3/1000 admissions) and tripled in UC group (18.4 to 57.6/1000 admissions; χ2 test for trend = 3.8; P = .05).Figure 2Annual incidence of CDAD at Barnes-Jewish Hospital from 1998–2004. Incidence of C difficile infections increased most appreciably in the non-IBD and all IBD groups. The UC group appears primarily to account for the increase observed in the IBD population as a whole. *P < .001 and **P = .08 comparing first and last 3 years of data.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)The results of our multivariate logistic regression analysis to estimate the risk of C difficile infection are shown in Table 2. After elimination of repeat cases and controls and exclusion as a result of missing data, 16,759 events were available for analysis in our nested case-control study. IBD was an independent risk factor for CDAD after adjustment for age, sex, race, Charlson score, year of admission, and LOS at risk, with a nearly 3-fold increased risk for C difficile infection compared with the non-IBD group. Both CD and UC demonstrated increased risk for CDAD in a separate multivariate analysis, but the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) was substantially higher in UC. A modest increased risk was observed with male sex and white race. Increasing age and comorbidity score increased the risk of C difficile infection in a dose-dependent fashion. With regard to individual Charlson comorbidities, the following were found to be significantly and independently associated with C difficile infection: congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, mild liver disease, diabetes, chronic renal failure, leukemia/lymphoma, human immunodeficiency virus, and metastatic cancer.Table 2Multivariate Analysis of Risk Factors for a C difficile Positive Stool Test ResultFactorUnitsaORaFor each risk factor, P < .01 except years of admission 1999, 2001, and LOS at risk 7.0–13.9, P < .3.95% CISexMale1.11.0–1.2RaceWhite1.31.2–1.4AgeYears <45Reference 45–641.51.3–1.7 ≥652.11.8–2.3Comorbidity indexCharlson score 0Reference 11.41.3–1.6 2–32.01.8–2.2 ≥42.62.1–3.3Year of admission 1998Reference 19991.10.9–1.3 20001.41.1–1.6 20011.10.9–1.3 20021.71.5–2.1 20031.41.2–1.7 20041.61.3–1.9LOS at riskDays <2.0Reference 2.0–3.90.30.2–0.4 4.0–6.90.40.3–0.5 7.0–13.90.90.7–1.0 14.0–27.91.81.5–2.1 ≥28.02.41.9–3.0IBD2.82.0–4.0 CD2.11.3–3.4 UC4.02.4–6.6a For each risk factor, P < .01 except years of admission 1999, 2001, and LOS at risk 7.0–13.9, P < .3. Open table in a new tab There was a trend toward increasing risk for CDAD with increasing year of admission (χ2 test for trend = 170, P < .001), although not every year was associated with a statistically significant aOR. Year 2002 demonstrated the highest risk, and this corresponded to the year of highest absolute incidence for all groups apart from the UC group, in which the incidence increased in each of 2 subsequent years. There was also an observed pattern of increasing aOR for CDAD with increasing LOS at risk.DiscussionOur results showed that the incidence of CDAD in IBD has increased during the 7 years for which data were available. As seen in Figure 2, the observed increase in CDAD incidence demonstrated in CD mirrors that of the non-IBD population. In contrast, the incidence of CDAD in UC in absolute terms was higher than that of the other 2 groups for each year except 1999 and also exhibited a faster rate of increase during the study period. This result is reflected in the estimates of risk for CDAD, which indicate that for all years combined, CDAD is significantly more common in UC than in CD and non-IBD patients. In addition, our results demonstrate an increase in risk with increasing year of admission on multivariate analysis. The appreciable increase in the CDAD rates in all groups between 2001–2002 might be partly explained by the fact that the enzyme immunoassay test for C difficile was adopted in 2001.A number of reasons for the increasing incidence of CDAD in the general hospitalized patient are postulated. For example, increased awareness and testing for C difficile infection might contribute to the increasing rates of CDAD observed. Also, lower specificity testing with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays might increase the false-positive yield compared with traditional cytotoxic culture testing. Use of gastric acid lowering medications has been implicated in community-acquired infections as well.10Dial S. Delaney J.A. Barkun A.N. et al.Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease.JAMA. 2005; 294: 2989-2995Crossref PubMed Scopus (810) Google Scholar Lastly, McDonald et al11McDonald L.C. Killgore G.E. Thompson A. et al.An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile.N Engl J Med. 2005; 353: 2433-2441Crossref PubMed Scopus (1732) Google Scholar have recently reported the emergence of an epidemic strain of C difficile that confers greater virulence and mortality and can cause outbreaks of CDAD in hospitalized patients.In the current study we have found that IBD patients have a higher incidence and risk of CDAD compared with the non-IBD population. IBD patients might possess unique features that result in a higher probability of diagnosis or add to their risk of CDAD. Compared with the non-IBD population, patients with IBD are more likely to be admitted with symptoms of diarrhea and thus might be subjected to greater amounts of testing for C difficile, particularly within the first few days of admission, as a part of the diagnostic evaluation for diarrhea. Furthermore, IBD theoretically predisposes patients to CDAD because IBD is characterized by a derangement of the inflammatory response in the gastrointestinal tract. Studies have shown that CDAD symptoms are caused by a robust mucosal inflammatory response (mediated by interleukin-8, macrophage inflammatory protein-2, substance P, tumor necrosis factor–α, and others), not from bacteremia with C difficile.4Bartlett J.G. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 334-339Crossref PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar Use of immunosuppressive agents, which prior studies have shown are associated with fulminant C difficile colitis,1Dallal R.M. Harbrecht B.G. Boujoukas A.J. et al.Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications.Ann Surg. 2002; 235: 363-372Crossref PubMed Scopus (514) Google Scholar might also confer a risk toward CDAD in IBD. In immunocompromised patients, such as those with IBD, disease could occur without exposure to C difficile in the hospital setting. Finally, it is possible that the IBD population is infected by a different strain of C difficile than in the non-IBD population, although in the current study, strain data were not available because culture of C difficile is not routine.In both univariate and multivariate testing, IBD patients were shown to have an increased risk for C difficile infection diagnosed during the hospital course. The increased risk with advancing age and higher comorbidity seen here agrees with previous studies. After adjusting for factors for which we had data, our study showed that UC patients have a significantly higher risk of CDAD compared with both the CD and non-IBD groups. A lower rate of CDAD in CD patients compared with UC might be explained by outpatient metronidazole use in CD, although preadmission antibiotic usage information was not available in our study. The increased risk of CDAD in IBD shown here appears attributable primarily to a higher risk observed in UC in particular. It is unclear whether the CD patients have a lower risk of CDAD compared with UC as a result of greater use of metronidazole, or whether UC patients possess additional characteristics that contribute to an increased risk beyond that of CD and the general population. The role of immunomodulators and biologics in this patient group, for example, should be explored in future investigations.The doubling rate of CDAD during a period of 7 years agrees with the rates reported during similar time periods in prior studies.12Lai K.K. Melvin Z.S. Menard M.J. et al.Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: epidemiology, risk factors, and infection control.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1997; 18: 628-632Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 13Poutanen S.M. Simor A.E. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults.CMAJ. 2004; 171: 51-58Crossref PubMed Scopus (324) Google Scholar However, the absolute incidence varies compared with other studies. The incidence of CDAD in hospitalized patients in North America has been reported to be between 3.4–8.4 cases/1000 admissions.14Miller M.A. Hyland M. Ofner-Agostini M. et al.Canadian Nosocomial Infection Surveillance Program Morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden of nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Canadian hospitals.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002; 23: 137-140Crossref PubMed Scopus (169) Google Scholar Our hospital data showing an overall rate of 12.4 cases/1000 admissions reflect a higher incidence of CDAD than previously reported. The difference observed could be explained by differences in the populations studied. For example, the current study focused on a single, tertiary care center in which CDAD rates are likely greater than those reported from non–tertiary care hospitals. Moreover, CDAD rates are reported to vary widely even among tertiary care centers in the United States.15Sohn S. Climo M. Diekema D. et al.Varying rates of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea at prevention epicenter hospitals.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005; 26: 676-679Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar Large variations in the incidences of CDAD reported might also be attributable to the differences in the characteristics of the study sites examined or lack of agreement on the surveillance definitions used for CDAD. Most important perhaps is that other studies, which tend to concentrate on nosocomial C difficile infection, exclude cases within 48 hours of admission. Such cases were incorporated into the analysis of all groups in our study, given the hypothesized increased likelihood of an early diagnosis of C difficile in hospitalized IBD patients.We found that the time from hospital admission to C difficile positivity occurred significantly earlier in patients with IBD than in those without IBD. There was a statistically significant difference among the groups with regard to mean LOS at risk; however, in clinical terms, this small difference of less than 1 day would not be expected to profoundly impact the risk of CDAD. In the non-IBD population, median time to C difficile positivity was day 4 of hospitalization, which corresponds to previous studies indicating that risk of CDAD increases with increasing LOS.16Macgowan A.P. Brown I. Feeney R. et al.Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea and length of hospital stay.J Hosp Infect. 1995; 31: 241-244Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar In contrast, C difficile positivity in both CD and UC occurred predominantly within the first 24 hours of hospitalization, which is generally regarded as insufficient time for a nosocomial infection to arise. In these cases C difficile infections probably represent a cause for admission. This has been observed clinically when CD and UC patients admitted for diarrhea are found to be C difficile positive and improve with antibiotic therapy. We cannot exclude the possibility that some C difficile infections within 24 hours in IBD patients were acquired during recent admissions to other hospitals, although we would expect that this might occur to a similar extent in the non-IBD population as well. Furthermore, a recent study17Issa M. Skaros S. Beaulieu D.B. et al.Increasing impact of Clostridium difficile on inflammatory bowel disease: a tertiary referral center experience.Gastroenterology. 2006; 130 (abstract W1168): A-649Google Scholar reported that 76% of C difficile infections in IBD patients were detected in the outpatient setting, which lends support to our conclusion that a large proportion of IBD patients acquire infection before hospitalization, or that many of these infections result in hospitalization.Strengths of our study include its large size and the multiple years of data available. The low rate of recurrent CDAD in the CD and UC groups eliminates the possibility that a small number of recurrent cases could account for the increased incidence in IBD. Limitations of our study include lack of data on antibiotic and immunosuppressive medication use before admission. Although CD patients are more likely to receive metronidazole as part of their" @default.
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• W1965964455 title "Incidence of Clostridium difficile Infection in Inflammatory Bowel Disease" @default.
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