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• W1966450197 abstract "The homeodomain protein Dlx5 is an activator of Runx2 (a key regulator of osteogenesis) and is thought to be an important regulator of bone formation. At present, however, the perinatal lethality of Dlx5-null mice has hampered the elucidation of its function in osteogenesis. Here we provide the first analysis of the effects of Dlx5 inactivation on bone development. Femurs of Dlx5-null mouse embryos at the end of gestation exhibit a reduction in both total and trabecular bone volume associated with increased trabecular separation and reduced trabecular number. These parameters are often associated with pathological conditions characterized by reduced osteoblast activity and increased bone resorption. Dlx5−/− osteoblasts in culture display reduced proliferation and differentiation rate and reduction of Runx2, Osx, Osteocalcin and Bone Sialoprotein expression. In addition to impaired osteoblast function, Dlx5−/− femurs exhibit significant increases in osteoclast number. As Dlx5 is not expressed by osteoclasts, we suggest that its osteoblastic expression might control osteoblast/osteoclast coupling. Cultured Dlx5−/− osteoblasts displayed a higher RANKL/OPG ratio. Furthermore, Dlx5−/− osteoblasts induced a higher number of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells in normal spleen cultures with a globally increased resorption activity. These findings suggest that Dlx5 is a central regulator of bone turnover as it activates bone formation directly and bone resorption indirectly. The homeodomain protein Dlx5 is an activator of Runx2 (a key regulator of osteogenesis) and is thought to be an important regulator of bone formation. At present, however, the perinatal lethality of Dlx5-null mice has hampered the elucidation of its function in osteogenesis. Here we provide the first analysis of the effects of Dlx5 inactivation on bone development. Femurs of Dlx5-null mouse embryos at the end of gestation exhibit a reduction in both total and trabecular bone volume associated with increased trabecular separation and reduced trabecular number. These parameters are often associated with pathological conditions characterized by reduced osteoblast activity and increased bone resorption. Dlx5−/− osteoblasts in culture display reduced proliferation and differentiation rate and reduction of Runx2, Osx, Osteocalcin and Bone Sialoprotein expression. In addition to impaired osteoblast function, Dlx5−/− femurs exhibit significant increases in osteoclast number. As Dlx5 is not expressed by osteoclasts, we suggest that its osteoblastic expression might control osteoblast/osteoclast coupling. Cultured Dlx5−/− osteoblasts displayed a higher RANKL/OPG ratio. Furthermore, Dlx5−/− osteoblasts induced a higher number of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells in normal spleen cultures with a globally increased resorption activity. These findings suggest that Dlx5 is a central regulator of bone turnover as it activates bone formation directly and bone resorption indirectly. The process of osteogenesis depends from complex regulatory networks involving molecular signals and transcription factors,1Olsen BR Reginato AM Wang W Bone development.Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2000; 16: 191-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (757) Google Scholar, 2Yang X Karsenty G Transcription factors in bone: developmental and pathological aspects.Trends Mol Med. 2002; 8: 340-345Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar deciphering their complexity is one of the future challenges in bone biology. Gene deletion studies have allowed the identification of transcription factors required for the specification and/or differentiation of the osteoblastic lineage. These include, for example Runx2, Osx, Atf4, Msx1, Msx2, Twist, AP1(Fos/Jun), Krox20, Sp3, and members of the Dlx homeobox family.2Yang X Karsenty G Transcription factors in bone: developmental and pathological aspects.Trends Mol Med. 2002; 8: 340-345Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar Vertebrate Dlx genes are transcription factors that share a highly conserved homeodomain, homologous to that of Drosophila Distal-less (Dll). The mouse and human Dlx gene system is formed by three bigene clusters : Dlx−1 and Dlx−2; Dlx−5 and Dlx−6; Dlx−3 and Dlx−4.3Cohen SM Bronner G Kuttner F Jurgens G Jackle H Distal-less encodes a homoeodomain protein required for limb development in Drosophila.Nature. 1989; 338: 432-434Crossref PubMed Scopus (322) Google Scholar, 4O'Hara E Cohen B Cohen SM McGinnis W Distal-less is a downstream gene of Deformed required for ventral maxillary identity.Development. 1993; 117: 847-856PubMed Google Scholar, 5Panganiban G Rubenstein JL Developmental functions of the Distal-less/Dlx homeobox genes.Development. 2002; 129: 4371-4386Crossref PubMed Google Scholar All Dlx genes might play a role in chondrogenesis and/or osteogenesis.6Samee N de Vernejoul MC Levi G Role of DLX regulatory proteins in osteogenesis and chondrogenesis.Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr. 2007; 17: 173-186Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar In particular, Dlx5 is expressed already at very early stages of bone development7Zhao GQ Zhao S Zhou X Eberspaecher H Solursh M de Crombrugghe B rDlx, a novel distal-less-like homeoprotein is expressed in developing cartilages and discrete neuronal tissues.Dev Biol. 1994; 164: 37-51Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar and has been proposed to play a central role in the control of osteogenesis. Long bones of Dlx5−/− mutant mice present a narrower hypertrophic zone8Bendall AJ Hu G Levi G Abate-Shen C Dlx5 regulates chondrocyte differentiation at multiple stages.Int J Dev Biol. 2003; 47: 335-344PubMed Google Scholar and a defective trabecular component.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar The calvaria of the Dlx5 mutants display delayed ossification resulting in open fontanellae.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Several recent in vitro studies have highlighted the fact that Dlx5 act at multiple stages of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis by controlling the expression of bone-related genes. Co-immunoprecipitation assays have shown complexes containing both Dlx5 and Runx2, a key regulator of osteogenesis10Hassan MQ Javed A Morasso MI Karlin J Montecino M van Wijnen AJ Stein GS Stein JL Lian JB Dlx3 transcriptional regulation of osteoblast differentiation: temporal recruitment of Msx2. Dlx3, and Dlx5 homeodomain proteins to chromatin of the osteocalcin gene.Mol Cell Biol. 2004; 24: 9248-9261Crossref PubMed Scopus (230) Google Scholar, 11Komori T Yagi H Nomura S Yamaguchi A Sasaki K Deguchi K Shimizu Y Bronson RT Gao YH Inada M Sato M Okamoto R Kitamura Y Yoshiki S Kishimoto T Targeted disruption of Cbfa1 results in a complete lack of bone formation owing to maturational arrest of osteoblasts.Cell. 1997; 89: 755-764Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3569) Google Scholar and multiple Dlx5 responsive elements have been identified in the Runx2 P1 promotor.12Hassan MQ Tare RS Lee SH Mandeville M Morasso MI Javed A van Wijnen AJ Stein JL Stein GS Lian JB BMP2 commitment to the osteogenic lineage involves activation of Runx2 by DLX3 and a homeodomain transcriptional network.J Biol Chem. 2006; 281: 40515-40526Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar Actually, Dlx5 could be at the same time a downstream target of Runx2 and an upstream regulator of Runx2 type II.13Holleville N Mateos S Bontoux M Bollerot K Monsoro-Burq AH Dlx5 drives Runx2 expression and osteogenic differentiation in developing cranial suture mesenchyme.Dev Biol. 2007; 304: 860-874Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar, 14Lee MH Kim YJ Yoon WJ Kim JI Kim BG Hwang YS Wozney JM Chi XZ Bae SC Choi KY Cho JY Choi JY Ryoo HM Dlx5 specifically regulates Runx2 type II expression by binding to homeodomain-response elements in the Runx2 distal promoter.J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 35579-35587Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar Many early and late markers of osteoblastic differentiation are potential direct targets of Dlx5. Osterix (Osx), a zinc finger transcription factor, is specifically expressed by osteoblasts during bone development, its inactivation leads to a lack of bone mineralization. Osx is a direct target of Runx2;15Nakashima K Zhou X Kunkel G Zhang Z Deng JM Behringer RR de Crombrugghe B The novel zinc finger-containing transcription factor osterix is required for osteoblast differentiation and bone formation.Cell. 2002; 108: 17-29Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2700) Google Scholar its BMP-2-dependent induction is mediated by Dlx5 through a specific homeodomain responsive element.16Lee MH Kwon TG Park HS Wozney JM Ryoo HM BMP-2-induced Osterix expression is mediated by Dlx5 but is independent of Runx2.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003; 309: 689-694Crossref PubMed Scopus (326) Google Scholar, 17Ulsamer A Ortuno MJ Ruiz S Susperregui AR Osses N Rosa JL Ventura F BMP-2 Induces Osterix Expression through Up-regulation of Dlx5 and Its Phosphorylation by p38.J Biol Chem. 2008; 283: 3816-3826Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar Alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin have been reported to be responsive to Dlx5.18Kim YJ Lee MH Wozney JM Cho JY Ryoo HM Bone morphogenetic protein-2-induced alkaline phosphatase expression is stimulated by Dlx5 and repressed by Msx2.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 50773-50780Crossref PubMed Scopus (160) Google Scholar, 19Ryoo HM Hoffmann HM Beumer T Frenkel B Towler DA Stein GS Stein JL van Wijnen AJ Lian JB Stage-specific expression of Dlx-5 during osteoblast differentiation: involvement in regulation of osteocalcin gene expression.Mol Endocrinol. 1997; 11: 1681-1694Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google ScholarDlx5 was found to bind directly to the conserved homeobox-binding site (TTAATTA) of bone sialoprotein (BSP) and to stimulate positively its transcription.20Benson MD Bargeon JL Xiao G Thomas PE Kim A Cui Y Franceschi RT Identification of a homeodomain binding element in the bone sialoprotein gene promoter that is required for its osteoblast-selective expression.J Biol Chem. 2000; 275: 13907-13917Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar Dlx5-null mice die at birth due to a defect in their respiratory system. The difficulty of performing quantitative studies on the bone of newborn mice has so far hampered the direct analysis of the function of this gene in vivo. Most of the available information on the involvement of Dlx5 in bone growth and development derive either from the observation of alizarin-red stained newborn skeletons9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar or from in vitro studies not involving mutant cells. In this study we use our Dlx5-null model9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar to finally clarify the role of Dlx5 in bone development. Our results demonstrate that Dlx5−/− mice have a significant decrease in bone volume and that their primary osteoblasts have a reduced proliferation and differentiation capacity with a higher potential to induce osteoclastogenesis. Mice with targeted disruption of Dlx5 have been previously described.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar In these mice the first and second exons of Dlx5 are replaced by the lacZ reporter. PCR genotyping and β-gal staining were performed as described.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Femurs were prepared from E18.5 embryos and embedded in methylmetacrylate as described.21Geoffroy V Marty-Morieux C Le Goupil N Clement-Lacroix P Terraz C Frain M Roux S Rossert J de Vernejoul MC In vivo inhibition of osteoblastic metalloproteinases leads to increased trabecular bone mass.J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19: 811-822Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Histomorphometric parameters were measured in accordance to the ASBMR nomenclature22Parfitt AM Drezner MK Glorieux FH Kanis JA Malluche H Meunier PJ Ott SM Recker RR Bone histomorphometry: standardization of nomenclature, symbols, and units. Report of the ASBMR Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee.J Bone Miner Res. 1987; 2: 595-610Crossref PubMed Scopus (4859) Google Scholar on 5 μm sections using a Nikon microscope interfaced with the software package Microvision Instruments (Evry, France). Sections were stained with aniline blue. For TRAP detection, sections were stained with a 50 mmol/L sodium tartrate and naphtol ASTR phosphate (Sigma, St Louis, France). Total bone volume was measured between the two chondro-osseous junctions; all other measurements were taken beginning at a standard point in the femur 100 μm below the growth plate not including the diaphyseal area. In all cases groups of littermates were analyzed. Immunohistochemistry was performed in Tris-buffered saline (Tris 50 mmol/L, pH 7.6, NaCl 150 mmol/L), using standard protocols.23Levi G Puche AC Mantero S Barbieri O Trombino S Paleari L Egeo A Merlo GR The Dlx5 homeodomain gene is essential for olfactory development and connectivity in the mouse.Mol Cell Neurosci. 2003; 22: 530-543Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar Rabbit anti-BSP antibody (LF-87) was kindly provided by Dr Larry Fisher (NIH, USA). Rabbit antisera were revealed with goat anti-rabbit (EnVision, Dako) and peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies. Peroxidase reaction was performed with DAB (Dako). Deparaffinized sections were incubated overnight at 4°C with the primary BSP antibody. Negative controls included sections without the primary antibody or with irrelevant antibodies. Osteoblasts were isolated from calvariae of 18.5 dpc embryos as described.24Merciris D Marty C Collet C de Vernejoul MC Geoffroy V Overexpression of the transcriptional factor Runx2 in osteoblasts abolishes the anabolic effect of parathyroid hormone in vivo.Am J Pathol. 2007; 170: 1676-1685Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar Cells isolated from the last two digests were pooled and plated in T-25 tissue culture flask in α-modified minimum essential medium (α-MEM) (Invitrogen, France) containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS) and antibiotic (100 mg/ml of penicillin/streptomycin). After three days of incubation at 37°C, attached cells from each flask were collected by trypsinization (0.05% trypsin), cells of the same genotype were pooled. To measure mineralization, the culture medium was supplemented with ascorbic acid (50μmol/L) and Na-β-glycerophosphate (10mmol/L), for other assays only with ascorbic acid. Cultures were pulsed for 18 hours with BrdU in the same medium as above supplemented with 1% FCS; BrdU incorporation was determined using the Cell Proliferation Elisa kit (GE Health care, Burkinghamshire, UK). At each time point, measurements were performed on three wells for each genotype and averaged. ALP activity in cell lysate was measured at day 7 and 14 using ADVIA®1650 (Bayer Diagnostics, Tarrytown, NY). The activity was normalized to the protein content determined using the BCA protein assay reagent (Pierce Chemical Co, UK). For bone mineralization assay, cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde after 21 days of culture; mineralized nodules were stained by Alizarin Red and counted automatically using the software package Microvision Instruments (Evry, France). Purified RNA from calvarial primary osteoblasts cultured for 7 and 14 days was obtained using Nucleospin® (Macherey-Nagel, Easton, PA) and was reverse-transcribed into cDNA using the Reverse-iT Max Blend (ABgene, Surrey, UK). Quantitative real-time PCR expression analysis was performed on Lightcycler1.5 (Roche Diagnostics) using Absolute® SYBR Green capillary mix (ABgene) at 56°C for 40 cycles. Primers product was designed from the online mouse library probes of Roche Diagnostics. mRNA levels were normalized by using either Aldolase A or 18S as housekeeping genes. Spleens from freshly euthanized male adult wild-type mice were used as source of osteoclast precursors. After red blood cell lysis the remaining cells were counted and co-cultured for 8 days in 8-wells Lab-Tek plates (Nunc, Fisher Scientific) with calvaria-derived osteoblasts isolated from 18.5 dpc Dlx5−/− embryo and control littermates (5 × 105 spleen cells, 1 × 104 osteoblasts/well). The culture medium (α-MEM containing 10% FBS) was supplemented with ascorbic acid (50μmol/L) and 10−8 mol/L 1,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3. At the end of the culture period, the wells were trypsinized 5 minutes to detach the osteoblasts cell layers, washed with PBS, fixed with 4% PFA, stained for TRAP and nuclear counterstained with methyl green solution. TRAP-positive multinucleated (number of nuclei >3) cells considered as osteoclast-like cells were counted. For pit assays 1 × 104 osteoblasts, of each genotype, were seeded on BD BioCoat Osteologic disks followed by 1 × 105 spleen precursors. The culture was maintained 8 days conditions described above. Von Kossa staining was performed according to the manufacturer's instruction. The area of resorption lacunae was quantified on the whole disk using a Nikon microscope interfaced with the Microvision Instruments software package (Evry, France). In vitro experiments were repeated three times independently. Results are expressed as mean ± SE (SEM). Statistical analysis was performed by Statview analysis program using two-way analysis of variance to compare differences between genotypes. P values less than 0.05 were considered to be significant. We have shown that the pattern of β-galactosidase expression in heterozygous Dlx5lacZ mice recapitulates faithfully that of Dlx5 in wild-type mice.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar In sagittal sections of femurs (Figure 1) of Dlx5+/- mice at E18.5 we observed β-galactosidase activity in growth plate chondrocytes and both in periosteal (Figure 1B) and in trabecular (Figure 1C) osteoblasts while no activity was detected in osteocytes. This observation confirms the known pattern of Dlx5 expression and suggests a role for this gene in osteoblastogenesis.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Respiratory lesions cause the perinatal death of Dlx5−/− pups.9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar We performed histomorphometric analyses on sections of femurs from E18.5 Dlx5−/− embryos and of normal and heterozygous littermates. As at E18.5 cortical bone is not yet completely individualized, to measure the total bone volume we selected the region between the chondro-osseous junctions of femurs (Figure 2A–C). Cancellous bone histomorphometric values were collected on a well-defined area, situated at 100 μm from the growth plate (see Figure 2A’-C’). We observed (Figure 2D) a significant decrease in the total bone volume of Dlx5−/− (Total BV/TV −21.4%; P < 0.05; n = 5) and heterozygous mutants (−21.4%; P < 0.05; n = 5). Cancellous bone volume was reduced in a gene-dosage dependent fashion (Cn.BV/TV; - 11% and −23% in Dlx5+/- and Dlx5−/− respectively; P < 0.001; n = 8). Trabecular number of Dlx5−/− mice was reduced (−16%; P < 0.05; n = 8); conversely, the trabecular separation was increased (+28%; P < 0.001; n = 8 vs. wild-type embryos; +16%; P < 0.001; n = 8 vs. Dlx5+/-) and trabecular thickness was unchanged. We analyzed the effects of Dlx5 inactivation on the proliferation and differentiation of primary cultures of calvaria-derived osteoblasts. After one to three days in culture the proliferation rate of Dlx5−/− and Dlx5+/- osteoblasts was about 40% of that displayed by normal cells (Figure 3A) and, although the effect was milder, it was also significantly reduced at later time points. Furthermore, the capacity of Dlx5−/− and Dlx5+/- osteoblasts to differentiate was similarly hampered as shown by a significant reduction of ALP activity at both 7 and 14 days of culture (Figure 3B) and by the lower number of mineralized nodules formed after 21 days of culture (Figure 3, C and D). By contrast, an allelic dosage effect of Dlx5 on osteoblast differentiation was observed at 14 days for ALP and 21 days for mineralized nodules formation suggesting its importance for late stage of osteoblast differentiation. The expression level of genes involved in the acquisition of the osteoblast phenotype was analyzed in calvaria-derived osteoblasts at 7 and 14 days in culture. As indicated in Figure 4A, the inactivation of both alleles of Dlx5 led to a significant reduction in the expression levels of Runx2, Osx and osteocalcin at day 7 and 14, and ALP at day 14. A direct regulation of Dlx5 on the BSP gene has been previously suggested, but not yet directly proven in mutant animals.20Benson MD Bargeon JL Xiao G Thomas PE Kim A Cui Y Franceschi RT Identification of a homeodomain binding element in the bone sialoprotein gene promoter that is required for its osteoblast-selective expression.J Biol Chem. 2000; 275: 13907-13917Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar In line with these results, we find also a strong reduction of BSP expression in cultured Dlx5−/− and Dlx5+/- osteoblasts compared to wild-type osteoblasts at day 7 (Figure 4A). This decreased BSP expression was confirmed in vivo by immunohistochemistry (Figure 4B) on decalcified E18.5 wild-type and Dlx5−/− femora. These reductions were observed, at a lesser extent, also in hemizygous mutant cells for the late markers of differentiation OC and BSP at day 14. Bone resorption plays a critical role during bone development and normal bone growth. The decrease in trabecular bone and the increasing trabecular separation observed in Dlx5-null mice suggested an overall increase in bone resorption. The number of osteoclasts per bone volume was significantly higher in Dlx5−/− embryos; no significant variation was observed in Dlx5+/- mice (Figure 5A). A direct effect of Dlx5 on osteoclastic differentiation is unlikely as this gene was not expressed by spleen-derived osteoclast precursors cultured in presence of M-CSF and RANK-L (data not shown). We therefore considered the possibility that Dlx5 inactivation could affect osteoblast/osteoclast coupling resulting in an increased osteoclast differentiation. We first monitored the levels of expression of OPG and RANKL in cultures of calvaria-derived osteoblasts. After 7 days of culture we observed a significant increase in the RANKL/OPG ratio only in Dlx5−/− osteoblasts suggesting that these cells had a higher potential to induce osteoclastogenesis (Figure 5B). Next, we co-cultured osteoblasts of the three Dlx5 genotypes with wild-type spleen cells. Osteoclast differentiation was evaluated counting the number of multinucleated TRAP positive cells, and bone resorption activity was determined by measuring the area of resorption pits on calcium phosphate-coated disks after von Kossa staining. After 8 days of co-culture (Figure 5, C and D), we showed that the average number of multinucleated TRAP-positive cells per mm2 (Dlx5−/− : 12.1 ± 1.2 versus Dlx5+/+ : 5.3 ± 1.3; mean ± SEM), the percentage of resorbed surface (Dlx5−/− : 3.71 ± 0.3 versus Dlx5+/+ : 2.43 ± 0.3%; n = 4 wells) and the average size of resorption pits (Dlx5−/− : 1534 ± 119 μm2 versus Dlx5+/+ : 680 ± 32 μm2; n = 4 wells) were all significantly higher in the co-culture with Dlx5−/− osteoblasts. These results demonstrate that the capacity of Dlx5-null osteoblasts to induce osteoclastogenesis is higher than that of wild-type osteoblasts. Bone development, growth and remodelling depend on the tight mutual control of the processes of bone formation and bone resorption mediated respectively by osteoblasts and osteoclasts.1Olsen BR Reginato AM Wang W Bone development.Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2000; 16: 191-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (757) Google Scholar Alteration of this balance in favor of osteoclasts leads to excessive bone resorption and to deterioration of bone architecture. Bone homeostasis largely depends on the exchange of signals between osteoblasts and osteoclasts leading to the coupling of the transcriptional regulatory cascades that govern their proliferation and differentiation.25Theoleyre S Wittrant Y Tat SK Fortun Y Redini F Heymann D The molecular triad OPG/RANK/RANKL: involvement in the orchestration of pathophysiological bone remodeling.Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2004; 15: 457-475Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (494) Google Scholar Several homeodomain proteins, including members of the Msx and Dlx family play important roles in patterning and formation of skeletal structures during embryogenesis and are supposed to act as upstream regulators of Runx2, a key activator of osteogenesis.6Samee N de Vernejoul MC Levi G Role of DLX regulatory proteins in osteogenesis and chondrogenesis.Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr. 2007; 17: 173-186Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 12Hassan MQ Tare RS Lee SH Mandeville M Morasso MI Javed A van Wijnen AJ Stein JL Stein GS Lian JB BMP2 commitment to the osteogenic lineage involves activation of Runx2 by DLX3 and a homeodomain transcriptional network.J Biol Chem. 2006; 281: 40515-40526Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar Dlx5 is expressed by proliferating osteoblasts since very early stages of embryonic bone formation.7Zhao GQ Zhao S Zhou X Eberspaecher H Solursh M de Crombrugghe B rDlx, a novel distal-less-like homeoprotein is expressed in developing cartilages and discrete neuronal tissues.Dev Biol. 1994; 164: 37-51Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar, 9Acampora D Merlo GR Paleari L Zerega B Postiglione MP Mantero S Bober E Barbieri O Simeone A Levi G Craniofacial, vestibular and bone defects in mice lacking the Distal-less-related gene Dlx5.Development. 1999; 126: 3795-3809Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Here we provide direct evidence showing that Dlx5 promotes osteoblast proliferation and differentiation as indicated by the decreased capacity of Dlx5−/−cells to express bone differentiation markers and to generate mineralized nodules in vitro. Our results extend our knowledge of the hierarchies of transcriptional regulators of bone development. Runx2 is considered as a master gene for osteoblasts maturation as Runx2-deficient mice completely lack bone formation owing to the absence of mature osteoblasts.11Komori T Yagi H Nomura S Yamaguchi A Sasaki K Deguchi K Shimizu Y Bronson RT Gao YH Inada M Sato M Okamoto R Kitamura Y Yoshiki S Kishimoto T Targeted disruption of Cbfa1 results in a complete lack of bone formation owing to maturational arrest of osteoblasts.Cell. 1997; 89: 755-764Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3569) Google Scholar The osteoblastic defects observed in our study may be in part the result of Runx2 dependent or independent pathways. Indeed, Dlx5 has been shown in vitro to be a direct transcriptional activator of Runx2 by binding to its P1 promotor that regulates the transcription of the Runx2-II isoform.14Lee MH Kim YJ Yoon WJ Kim JI Kim BG Hwang YS Wozney JM Chi XZ Bae SC Choi KY Cho JY Choi JY Ryoo HM Dlx5 specifically regulates Runx2 type II expression by binding to homeodomain-response elements in the Runx2 distal promoter.J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 35579-35587Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar We confirm these finding in vivo showing that Dlx5 inactivation results in decreased Runx2 expression. It has been shown12Hassan MQ Tare RS Lee SH Mandeville M Morasso MI Javed A van Wijnen AJ Stein JL Stein GS Lian JB BMP2 commitment to the osteogenic lineage involves activation of Runx2 by DLX3 and a homeodomain transcriptional network.J Biol Chem. 2006; 281: 40515-40526Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar that Dlx5 is competent to promote expression of osteoblast-specific genes such as ALP and osteocalcin in Runx2-null cells suggesting a Runx2-independent pathway. The expression of Osx, a direct target of Runx2, is also reduced in cultured Dlx5−/− osteoblast. This reduction might derive either from an indirect effect of Dlx5 on Runx2 expression or from a direct action of Dlx5 on Osx. Indeed, previous results have shown that Osx might be activated through a Dlx5-dependent/Runx2-independent mechanism.16Lee MH Kwon TG Park HS Wozney JM Ryoo HM BMP-2-induced Osterix expression is mediated by Dlx5 but is independent of Runx2.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003; 309: 689-694Crossref PubMed Scopus (326) Google Scholar The fact that in Dlx5−/− mice the process of bone differentiation takes place, suggests that Dlx5 is not as central as Runx2 or Osx, but only acts as a modulator of their expressions. Osteocalcin and BSP, both markers of differentiated osteoblasts implicated in the process of mineralization, have been reported to be under the direct transcriptional control of Dlx5.19Ryoo HM Hoffmann HM Beumer T Frenkel B Towler DA Stein GS Stein JL van Wijnen AJ Lian JB Stage-specific expression of Dlx-5 during osteoblast differentiation: involvement in regulation of osteocalcin gene expression.Mol Endocrinol. 1997; 11: 1681-1694Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar, 26Kiyoshima T Yamauchi M Wong C Jheon A Ganss B Sodek J An L1 element disrupts human bone sialoprotein promoter: lack of tissue-specific regulation by distalless5 (Dlx5) and runt homeodomain protein2 (Runx2)/core binding factor a1 (Cbfa1) elements.Gene. 2002; 299: 205-217Crossref PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar We confirm these findings as both markers are drastically down-regulated in Dlx5−/− osteoblasts in culture. Our study shows, therefore, that Dlx5 is not only an activator of osteoblast proliferation and early differentiation but can affect also later stages of osteogenesis. We show that the inactivation of a single Dlx5 allele results in lower levels of its expression by osteoblasts. Interestingly, certain parameters of bone development (Cn.BV/TV and Tb.Sp) and the levels of expression of Runx2, OC and BSP change gradually in response to the allelic dosage of Dlx5 while others (Total BV/TV, proliferation rate) and osterix expression show the same reduction in homozygous and heterozygous mutant mice. These data suggest that Dlx5 regulates downstream genes in a gene-dosage dependent fashion and that in certain cases a threshold effect in gene regulation might also be present. Taken together our in vitro results correlate well with the remarkable reduction of total bone volume observed in vivo. This correlation is, however, not seen for trabecular bone as no significant difference in trabecular thickness, an indicative parameter of osteoblastic activity, is observed in Dlx5−/− mice. The different origin of cortical and trabecular osteoblasts precursors may partly explain this different phenotype. Indeed cultured precursors derive from the calvaria and their differentiation may be better correlated to the formation of the cortical component of long bones as they both are of intramembranous origin. In addition to impairment of calvaria-derived osteoblast function, Dlx5−/− mice exhibited a significant increase in osteoclast number and trabecular separation as shown by our histomorphometric measurements. Dlx5 is not expressed by differentiated multinucleated TRAP positive osteoclasts; we focused therefore our attention on the cross talk between osteoblasts/osteoclasts and in particular on the molecular triad OPG/RANK/RANKL, which orchestrates osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption.25Theoleyre S Wittrant Y Tat SK Fortun Y Redini F Heymann D The molecular triad OPG/RANK/RANKL: involvement in the orchestration of pathophysiological bone remodeling.Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2004; 15: 457-475Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (494) Google Scholar Our findings show that Dlx5−/− osteoblasts indirectly enhance osteoclastogenesis. Mutant osteoblasts present an increased RANKL/OPG ratio supporting the notion of an imbalanced osteoblasts/osteoclasts coupling. The increased number of multinuclear TRAP positive cells obtained in Dlx5−/− co-cultures is actually associated with a higher resorption activity indicating a higher number of functional osteoclasts. The increased size of the resorption pits observed in Dlx5−/− co-cultures might either result from an increase in the number of osteoclasts or from an increased resorption activity of individual cells. The fact that Dlx5−/− osteoblasts are relatively undifferentiated might favor osteoclastogenesis as observed in several studies where the differentiation status of osteoblasts affected osteoclast formation and function.27Atkins GJ Kostakis P Pan B Farrugia A Gronthos S Evdokiou A Harrison K Findlay DM Zannettino AC RANKL expression is related to the differentiation state of human osteoblasts.J Bone Miner Res. 2003; 18: 1088-1098Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar As in Runx2−/− mice the osteoclast number and the RANK-L/OPG ratio are drastically decreased, it appears that the action of Dlx5 on osteoclastogenesis is independent of Runx2 regulation.28Xiao ZS Hjelmeland AB Quarles LD Selective deficiency of the “bone-related” Runx2-II unexpectedly preserves osteoblast-mediated skeletogenesis.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 20307-20313Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar To our knowledge no other mutant mouse model displays a phenotype of osteoblast/osteoclast coupling associated to an increased resorption activity similar to that observed in Dlx5−/− mutants. Our findings might lead to the development of new tools to understand the origin of bone homeostasis-related diseases such as osteoporosis or osteopenia resulting from immobilization as it has been shown that Dlx5 expression increases in the presence of mechanical loading thus altering the coupling between osteoblasts and osteoclasts.29Jee WS Ma Y Animal models of immobilization osteopenia.Morphologie. 1999; 83: 25-34PubMed Google Scholar, 30Yanagisawa M Suzuki N Mitsui N Koyama Y Otsuka K Shimizu N Effects of compressive force on the differentiation of pluripotent mesenchymal cells.Life Sci. 2007; 81: 405-412Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar The analysis of other genetically modified models allowing the study of bone remodelling, such as mice carrying a conditional invalidation of Dlx5 in bone, will be decisive to evaluate the potential implication of Dlx5 in osteoporosis. We thank Dr Larry Fisher (NIH, USA) for generously providing anti-BSP antibody. We are grateful to Ms. Christine Forgeron and Mr. Stéphane Sosinski for maintaining the mouse colony. This work was supported by grants from the EU community: Anabonos PL503020 and Crescendo LSHM-CT-2005–018652 and by the French Association “Rhumatisme et Travail”. N.S. is recipient of a doctoral fellowship from the French Government." @default.
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• W1966450197 title "Dlx5, a Positive Regulator of Osteoblastogenesis, is Essential for Osteoblast-Osteoclast Coupling" @default.
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