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W1968072008 abstract "Both genomic and subgenomic RNAs of theAlphavirus have m7G(5′)ppp(5′)N (cap0 structure) at their 5′ end. Previously it has been shown thatAlphavirus-specific nonstructural protein Nsp1 has guanine-7N-methyltransferase and guanylyltransferase activities needed in the synthesis of the cap structure. During normal cap synthesis the 5′ γ-phosphate of the nascent viral RNA chain is removed by a specific RNA 5′-triphosphatase before condensation with GMP, delivered by the guanylyltransferase. Using a novel RNA triphosphatase assay, we show here that nonstructural protein Nsp2 (799 amino acids) of Semliki Forest virus specifically cleaves the γ,β-triphosphate bond at the 5′ end of RNA. The same activity was demonstrated for Nsp2 of Sindbis virus, as well as for the amino-terminal fragment of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2-N (residues 1–470). The carboxyl-terminal part of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2-C (residues 471–799) had no RNA triphosphatase activity. Replacement of Lys-192 by Asn in the nucleotide-binding site completely abolished RNA triphosphatase and nucleoside triphosphatase activities of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2 and Nsp2-N. Here we provide biochemical characterization of the newly found function of Nsp2 and discuss the unique properties of the entire Alphavirus-capping apparatus. Both genomic and subgenomic RNAs of theAlphavirus have m7G(5′)ppp(5′)N (cap0 structure) at their 5′ end. Previously it has been shown thatAlphavirus-specific nonstructural protein Nsp1 has guanine-7N-methyltransferase and guanylyltransferase activities needed in the synthesis of the cap structure. During normal cap synthesis the 5′ γ-phosphate of the nascent viral RNA chain is removed by a specific RNA 5′-triphosphatase before condensation with GMP, delivered by the guanylyltransferase. Using a novel RNA triphosphatase assay, we show here that nonstructural protein Nsp2 (799 amino acids) of Semliki Forest virus specifically cleaves the γ,β-triphosphate bond at the 5′ end of RNA. The same activity was demonstrated for Nsp2 of Sindbis virus, as well as for the amino-terminal fragment of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2-N (residues 1–470). The carboxyl-terminal part of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2-C (residues 471–799) had no RNA triphosphatase activity. Replacement of Lys-192 by Asn in the nucleotide-binding site completely abolished RNA triphosphatase and nucleoside triphosphatase activities of Semliki Forest virus Nsp2 and Nsp2-N. Here we provide biochemical characterization of the newly found function of Nsp2 and discuss the unique properties of the entire Alphavirus-capping apparatus. Semliki Forest virus amino acids nucleoside triphosphatase polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis polyethyleneimine Semliki Forest virus (SFV)1 is member of theAlphavirus genus of the Togaviridae family. SFV has a positive-stranded 42 S RNA genome of 11.5 kilobases. RNA replication of SFV takes place in the cytoplasm and is catalyzed by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which contains the virus-specific proteins Nsp1–4. These are cleavage products of a large (2342 aa) nonstructural polyprotein P1234. In the RNA polymerase complex all Nsps are in close association with each other (1.Kääriäinen L. Takkinen K. Keränen S. Söderlund H. J. Cell Sci. (Supp.). 1987; 7: 231-250Crossref Google Scholar, 2.Strauss J.H. Strauss E.G. Microbiol. Rev. 1994; 58: 491-562Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The parental 42 S RNA is copied to complementary minus-strands, which in turn are used as templates for the synthesis of new 42 S RNA plus-strands and subgenomic 26 S mRNAs. During plus-strand synthesis, the 5′ ends of the 42 S and 26 S RNAs become modified with covalently attached m7GpppA (the cap0 structure) (3.Cross R.K. Gomatos P.J. Virology. 1981; 114: 542-554Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar, 4.Dubin D.T. Stollar V. Hsuchen C.-C. Timko K. Guild G.M. Virology. 1977; 77: 457-470Crossref PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 5.Pettersson R.F. Söderlund H. Kääriäinen L. Eur. J. Biochem. 1980; 105: 435-443Crossref PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar). Capping of the RNAs is believed to be obligatory also for the replication of Alphavirus, since a point mutation specifically destroying the guanylyltransferase activity of Nsp1 is lethal for the virus (6.Wang H.-L. O'Rear J. Stollar V. Virology. 1996; 217: 527-531Crossref PubMed Scopus (67) Google Scholar). The functions of Alphavirus Nsps in replication have been studied using various genetic and biochemical approaches (1.Kääriäinen L. Takkinen K. Keränen S. Söderlund H. J. Cell Sci. (Supp.). 1987; 7: 231-250Crossref Google Scholar, 2.Strauss J.H. Strauss E.G. Microbiol. Rev. 1994; 58: 491-562Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Nsp4 is the catalytic component of the RNA polymerase (7.Keränen S. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1979; 32: 19-29Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 8.Barton D.J. Sawicki S.G. Sawicki D.L. J. Virol. 1988; 62: 3597-3602Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), whereas the functions of the phosphoprotein Nsp3 (9.Peränen J. Takkinen K. Kalkkinen N. Kääriäinen L. J. Gen. Virol. 1988; 69: 2165-2178Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar) are poorly defined (10.LaStarza M.W. Lemm J.A. Rice C.M. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5781-5791Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 11.Wang Y.-F. Sawicki S.G. Sawicki D.L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 6466-6475Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Nsp2 has several distinct functions. It has nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) activity at its amino-terminal half (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), which is vital for the virus replication (13.Rikkonen M. Virology. 1996; 218: 352-361Crossref PubMed Scopus (66) Google Scholar). Nsp2 has RNA helicase activity, which utilizes NTP hydrolysis as the energy source (14.Gomez de Cedron M. Ehsani N. Mikkola M. Garcia J.A. Kääriäinen L. FEBS Lett. 1999; 448: 19-22Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar). The carboxyl-terminal part of the protein is a papain-like protease responsible for the autocatalytic cleavages of the nonstructural polyprotein (2.Strauss J.H. Strauss E.G. Microbiol. Rev. 1994; 58: 491-562Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 15.Hardy W.R. Strauss J.H. J. Virol. 1989; 63: 4653-4664Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 16.Takkinen K. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Gen. Virol. 1991; 72: 1627-1633Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar). The carboxyl-terminal part has a nuclear localization sequence, which is responsible for sequestering of about half of the molecules to the nucleus during infection (17.Peränen J. Rikkonen M. Liljeström P. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1990; 64: 1888-1896Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 18.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. Virology. 1992; 189: 462-473Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar). Furthermore, Nsp2 regulates transcription of the subgenomic 26 S RNA (Ref. 19.Suopanki J. Sawicki D.L. Sawicki S.G. Kääriäinen L. J. Gen. Virol. 1998; 79: 309-319Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar and references therein). Here we show that Nsp2 has yet an additional activity required for capping of the virus mRNAs. Capping of cellular mRNAs occurs in the nucleus and comprises four different reactions. RNA 5′-triphosphatase removes the γ-phosphate from the 5′ end of the nascent RNA molecule (pppRNA → ppRNA). Guanylyltransferase reacts with a GTP molecule to form a covalent complex with GMP, which is then transferred from guanylyltransferase to the 5′ end of RNA to form G(5′)ppp(5′)NpRNA. Methylation by guanine-7N-methyltransferase yields an RNA molecule with the cap0 structure (m7GpppNpRNA). Further methylation by nucleoside-2′-O-methyltransferase of the riboses of the penultimate and the adjacent nucleotides yields cap1 and cap2 structures, respectively (20.Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 1987; 34: 1-28Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar, 21.Shuman S. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 1995; 50: 101-129Crossref PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). Unlike cellular mRNAs, the capping of Alphavirus RNAs takes place in the cytoplasm and is carried out by reactions that differ from the nuclear reactions as follows. (i) Nsp1 catalyzes transfer of the methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine to GTP to yield m7GTP (methyltransferase reaction), and (ii) a covalent guanylate complex Nsp1-m7GMP is formed (22.Laakkonen P. Hyvönen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 7418-7425Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 23.Ahola T. Kääriäinen L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 507-511Crossref PubMed Scopus (237) Google Scholar, 24.Ahola T. Laakkonen P. Vihinen H. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1997; 71: 392-397Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 25.Laakkonen P. Ahola T. Kääriäinen L. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 28567-28571Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). Here, we show that Nsp2 of SFV and Sindbis virus possess RNA triphosphatase activity, which is localized to the amino-terminal half of the protein. Comparison with other capping enzymes suggests that theAlphavirus-capping apparatus is a unique complex. Semliki Forest virus nonstructural proteins Nsp1, Nsp2, Nsp3, Nsp4, the Nsp2 (K192N) mutant, the amino-terminal part of Nsp2 (aa 1–470) (Nsp2-N), the carboxyl-terminal part of Nsp2 (aa 470–799), and Sindbis virus Nsp2 were expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) (Stratagene) using pHAT plasmids encoding amino-terminal His6 tags (26.Peränen J. Rikkonen M. Hyvönen M. Kääriäinen L. Anal. Biochem. 1996; 236: 371-373Crossref PubMed Scopus (222) Google Scholar). The proteins were purified using Ni2+ affinity chromatography as described (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Protein concentration was determined using the Bradford assay (27.Bradford M.M. Anal. Biochem. 1976; 72: 248-254Crossref PubMed Scopus (216377) Google Scholar) and Bio-Rad reagents. The purity of proteins was verified by SDS-PAGE in 10% gels. Two different plasmids were used to produce RNA substrates: pGEM3Zf(+) purchased from Promega, and pUC18Ω. Omega (Ω) leader (1–68 nucleotides) of tobacco mosaic virus was first amplified from infectious cDNA clone tobacco mosaic virus 304 (a kind gift by Dr. Kirsi Lehto, University of Turku) using clonedPfu polymerase (Stratagene) and oligonucleotides 5′-CTGAATTC ATTTAGGTGACACTATAGAATTTTTACAACAATTACCA-3′ and 5′-GGTAGCTGTCTGTGTCTAG AATATT GTAATTGTAAATAGT-3′ as upstream and downstream primers, respectively. The upstream primer was designed to contain the SP6 promoter sequence (underlined), and the downstream primer included the SspI site (underlined). The polymerase chain reaction fragment digested with EcoRI andXbaI was then gel-purified and ligated with theEcoRI/XbaI cut vector pUC18 (New England Biolabs). RNAs were prepared by in vitro transcription of pGEM3Zf(+) cut with EcoRI (RNA1) or pUC18Ω cut withSspI (RNA2). Synthesis of RNA probes was carried out in 50 μl of Promega transcription buffer in the presence of 0.5 mm each NTP (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), 50 μCi of either [γ-32P] or [α-32P]GTP (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech; 5000 Ci/mmol), 40 units of RNasin (Promega), 40 units of SP6 RNA polymerase (Promega), and 2.5 to 5 μg of a linear DNA substrate. After incubation at 37 °C for 1 h, the transcription products were extracted with phenol/chloroform (1:1) and purified by PAGE in 10% gels containing 7 m urea. Radioactive bands were excised, and the RNA was eluted from the gel with a buffer containing 20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 300 mm ammonium acetate, and 1 mm EDTA for 3 h at room temperature and precipitated with ethanol. To produce RNAs with lower specific radioactivity, transcription was carried out in 50 μl of 120 mm HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, buffer containing 24 mm MgCl2, 1 mm spermidine, 20 mm dithiothreitol, 5 mm each NTP, 50 μCi of either [γ-32P]GTP or [α-32P]GTP, 40 units of RNasin, 80 units of SP6 RNA polymerase, and 5 to 10 μg of a DNA substrate ( 28). The mixtures were incubated at 37 °C for 2 h, and the reaction was stopped by the addition of 1 unit of DNase RQ (Promega) per 1 μg of input DNA template. Incubation was continued for a further 15 min at 37 °C. The resultant RNA samples were extracted with phenol/chloroform (1:1) and chloroform, precipitated with 3 m LiCl, and dissolved in sterile water, followed by additional purification of the RNA preparations in Sephadex G25 spin columns (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). RNA concentrations were measured by absorbance at 260 nm. The purity of the RNAs was controlled PAGE in 10% gel containing 7 m urea. Two different methods were used to assay RNA 5′-triphosphatase activity. The first assay was based on the liberation of the γ-phosphate group from the γ -32P-labeled RNA substrates. In this case, the RNA triphosphatase reaction mixture (40 μl) contained 20 mmTris-HCl, pH 8.0, 1 mm MgCl2, 5 mmKCl, 150 mm NaCl, 2 mm dithiothreitol, and 0.2–5 μmol of a [γ-32P]RNA substrate and 0.1–1 pmol of the enzyme. Reactions were carried out for 20 min at 25 °C. The reaction products were separated by PAGE as above. The radioactive bands were visualized by autoradiography. Alternatively, the release of radioactive phosphate was measured by phosphoimaging (BAS-1500; Fuji) as the decrease of the radioactivity of the [γ-32P]RNA band. Identical untreated electrophoresed samples served as controls in each assay. In the second assay, the terminal GTP at the 5′ end of the substrate RNA was selectively labeled at the α-phosphate position during transcription. The RNA triphosphatase reaction was carried out as above and stopped by phenol/chloroform extraction. The RNA was precipitated with ethanol and dissolved in TE buffer (10 mm Tris HCl, pH 8.0, and 1 mm EDTA). The RNA (100 μg/ml) was treated with RNase T1 (100 units/ml) (Roche Molecular Biochemicals) at 30 °C to release the 5′-terminal guanylate. Aliquots from the Rnase-treated samples were spotted onto polyethyleneimine (PEI)- cellulose thin layer chromatography (TLC) plates (Merck) and developed with 1 mLiCl. Spots of labeled nucleotides were visualized using autoradiography or phosphoimaging analysis. Reaction mixtures (10 μl) containing 20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 2 mm MgCl2, 5 mm KCl, 150 mm NaCl, 2 mmdithiothreitol, 50–200 μm GTP, 0.2 μCi of [γ-32P]GTP (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech; 5000 Ci/mM), and 0.1–1 pmol of enzyme were incubated at 37 °C for 30–60 min. Aliquots from reaction mixtures were spotted onto PEI-cellulose TLC plates and developed with 1 m formic acid, 1 mLiCl. Spots of GTP and the newly formed inorganic phosphate (Pi) were visualized by autoradiography. Radioactivity in the Pi spots was also measured by phosphoimaging. To test possible RNA triphosphatase activity of the SFV nonstructural proteins, Nsp1, Nsp2, Nsp3 and Nsp4 were expressed in E. coli and purified using metal-chelating chromatography as described before (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Assay mixtures containing serial dilutions of the different Nsps were incubated for 30 min at 25 °C in the presence of a 64-nucleotide-long RNA substrate (RNA1). The 5′-terminal G of the RNA was labeled with [γ-32P]GTP during the transcription. Reaction products were separated by PAGE under denaturing conditions, and the RNA triphosphatase activity was measured as a decrease in the intensity of the labeled RNA band (Fig. 1). Among the four Nsps tested, only Nsp2 was able to remove the label from the substrate RNA1 (Fig. 1, Nsp2). The assay was also performed with the Nsp2 protein containing a single amino acid change (K192N) in the nucleotide-binding site (Fig. 2). This mutation has been shown to destroy the NTPase activity of Nsp2 (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The mutant protein (K192N) had no detectable triphosphatase activity when used within the same concentration range as the wild type Nsp2 (Fig. 1, K192N).Figure 2Amino acid sequence of amino-terminal part of SFV Nsp2 (1 to 470 aa ) harboring the RNA triphosphatase and NTPase activities. Residues representing the conserved NTP binding motif (1.Kääriäinen L. Takkinen K. Keränen S. Söderlund H. J. Cell Sci. (Supp.). 1987; 7: 231-250Crossref Google Scholar) present in Alphavirus Nsp2 s are underlined. The critical lysine (Lys-192) residue needed for NTPase (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) and RNA helicase (14.Gomez de Cedron M. Ehsani N. Mikkola M. Garcia J.A. Kääriäinen L. FEBS Lett. 1999; 448: 19-22Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar) as well as for RNA triphosphatase activity (in this study) is shown in boldface.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) To find out which part of the multifunctional Nsp2 harbors the RNA triphosphatase activity, we expressed and purified two halves of the Nsp2 molecule separately. The amino-terminal half Nsp2-N (residues 1–470) had similar RNA triphosphatase activity as the complete Nsp2 (Fig. 1, Nsp2-N), whereas the carboxyl-terminal half Nsp2-C (470–799 aa) had no activity (Fig. 1, Nsp2-C). As expected, the K192N mutation in the Nsp2-N fragment rendered it inactive (not shown). Finally, it was interesting to know whether Nsp2 of anotherAlphavirus also possessed RNA triphosphatase activity. To this end, we expressed in E. coli and purified Sindbis virus Nsp2 (Nsp2SIN) following the same protocol as for the SFV Nsp2. Also, SIN Nsp2 could remove the γ-labeled phosphate from RNA1 and from [γ-32P]GTP (see Fig.3). Control experiments were devised to exclude the possibility that the Nsp2 preparation contained nonspecific phosphatase or nuclease activities. In these experiments, we used a 70-nucleotide-long RNA molecule representing tobacco mosaic virus Ω leader RNA (RNA2), which has only a single guanylate residue at the 5′ end. During transcription, the 5′ end of RNA2 was labeled either with [α-32P]GTP or [γ-32P]GTP (Figs.4). These RNAs were treated with different amounts of Nsp2, and the products were analyzed by PAGE. No decrease in the radioactivity was observed for RNA preparations labeled at the α-position (Fig. 4 A), whereas reduction of radioactivity was clearly seen in Nsp2-treated RNA preparations labeled at the γ-position (Fig. 4 B). Thus, we conclude that the Nsp2 preparation did not contain any nonspecific nuclease activity, and that Nsp2 released γ-phosphate but not α-phosphate from the 5′ end of RNA2. The following experiment was carried out to ensure that Nsp2 cleaves only γ-phosphate but not β-phosphate group. RNA2 labeled at the α-position was first exposed to Nsp2. A similar untreated RNA2 preparation served as a control. Both RNA samples were thereafter digested with ribonuclease T1, which can cleave from RNA2 only the 5′-terminal guanylate residue. The digestion mixtures were analyzed by thin layer chromatography on PEI plates using unlabeled GMP, GDP, and GTP as markers. The untreated control RNA2 preparation yielded only radioactive GTP, whereas RNA2 that had been exposed to Nsp2 yielded radioactive GDP (Fig. 5). Thus, we conclude that Nsp2 is a genuine RNA triphosphatase that cleaves only the bond between γ and β phosphates at the 5′ end of the substrate RNA molecule. The RNA triphosphatase activity was optimized for Nsp2-N fragment with respect to divalent cation concentration. For comparison, the optimization was also carried out for the NTPase activity of Nsp2-N using γ-labeled GTP as the substrate. The optimal MgCl2 concentration for the GTPase reaction was 5 mm, and only a slight decrease of activity was observed with higher concentrations (Fig.6 A, open circles). Interestingly, there was a sharp maximum at 0.1 mm for MnCl2 (Fig. 6 A, closed symbols). For RNA triphosphatase, the optimal Mg2+ concentration was 1.0–2.0 mm, whereas a sharp maximum of activity was obtained with a Mn2+ concentration of 0.1 mm(Fig. 6 B). Our results concerning NaCl dependence indicate that monovalent cations stimulate the RNA triphosphatase activity but within a wide concentration range (Fig.7 A). The RNA triphosphatase activity had a wide pH range with an optimum at pH 7–8 (Fig.7 B). To test the effect of temperature, the rates of hydrolysis of [γ-32P]triphosphate-terminated RNA were determined at 20 °C, 25 °C, 37 °C, and 42 °C. The maximum rate of hydrolysis was achieved at 25 °C, whereas incubation at 42 °C apparently resulted in inactivation of the enzyme (Fig.7 C).Figure 7Effects of monovalent cations (A), pH (B), and temperature (C) on RNA triphosphatase activity. The RNA triphosphatase assays were performed using 5′-[γ-32P]RNA2 as substrate and 0.1 pmol of Nsp2.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Knowing the optimal conditions for the RNA triphosphatase and NTPase, the apparent K m values were estimated for both reactions. The reaction initial velocity, measured within the first 20 min of incubation, was plotted as a function of the substrate concentration according to the equations by Lineweaver and Burk (Fig.8). The RNA triphosphatase reaction catalyzed by Nsp2-N reached its maximum at 0.055 μm/min, and the apparent K m was 2.99 μm (Fig.8 A). K cat of 5.5 min−1, determined for the RNA triphosphatase reaction, indicated that the γ-phosphate from 5.5 molecules of RNA was hydrolyzed/min. A much lower apparent substrate affinity (K m value of 90 μm) was obtained for the NTPase activity of Nsp2 (Fig.8 B). The maximal velocity (2.3 μm/min) and the kinetic constant K cat (230 min−1) for the Nsp2-N-catalyzed NTPase reaction were also calculated from the double-reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk plot. These data indicate that Nsp2-N of SFV had about a 30-fold higher affinity for RNA than for the nucleoside triphosphate. The role of the nonstructural protein Nsp1 in the capping of the viral RNAs has been well established. First, it was shown that Nsp1 has guanine-7N-methyltransferase activity (29.Mi S. Stollar V. Virology. 1991; 184: 423-427Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar). However, the properties of this enzyme were different from those of previously known capping enzymes. Nsp1 could not methylate an unmethylated cap at the 5′ end of RNA. Instead, it catalyzed the methylation GTP, dGTP, and GpppG, but not of GpppA, which is the 5′ dinucleotide of Alphavirus42 S and 26 S RNAs (22.Laakkonen P. Hyvönen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 7418-7425Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 30.Lampio A. Ahola T. Darzynkiewicz E. Stepinski J. Jankowska-Anyszka M. Kääriäinen L. Antiviral Res. 1999; 42: 35-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar). This led us to discover a novel guanylyltransferase activity of Nsp1, which unlike other capping enzymes, forms a covalent complex with m7GMP instead of GMP (23.Ahola T. Kääriäinen L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 507-511Crossref PubMed Scopus (237) Google Scholar, 24.Ahola T. Laakkonen P. Vihinen H. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1997; 71: 392-397Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). As neither of these reactions takes place in uninfected host cells, they are potential targets for development of antiviral drugs (30.Lampio A. Ahola T. Darzynkiewicz E. Stepinski J. Jankowska-Anyszka M. Kääriäinen L. Antiviral Res. 1999; 42: 35-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar). Since removal of γ-phosphate from the nascent 5′ end of RNA is an essential step in the capping of mRNAs, we started to look for RNA triphosphatase activity among the virus-specific components of the RNA polymerase. Here we show that of the four nonstructural proteins of SFV, only Nsp2 had RNA triphosphatase activity, which was confined to the amino-terminal half of the protein together with the previously discovered nucleoside triphosphatase activity (12.Rikkonen M. Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 5804-5810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 13.Rikkonen M. Virology. 1996; 218: 352-361Crossref PubMed Scopus (66) Google Scholar). To ensure that the RNA triphosphatase and NTPase activities are properties of theAlphavirus family, we produced and also assayed Nsp2 of Sindbis virus. Both activities, indistinguishable from those of SFV Nsp2, were associated with the Nsp2 of Sindbis virus (Fig. 1,Nsp2SIN, and Fig. 2). Taking into consideration the significant amino acid sequence homology among AlphavirusNsps, one could suggest that Nsp2 proteins of all Alphavirushave both RNA triphosphatase and NTPase activities. All viral RNA triphosphatases discovered so far have been shown to have also NTPase activity (Table I). TheK m values of the RNA triphosphatase and NTPase activities of vaccinia virus D1 capping protein differ considerably (1 μm and 800 μm, respectively). Competition between RNA and ATP substrates revealed that ATP inhibited the RNA triphosphatase reaction, indicating that the hydrolysis of the γ-phosphate of both RNA and ATP takes place in the same reaction center (31.Myette J.R. Niles E.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 11945-11952Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar). Similar results have been reported for the RNA triphosphatase/NTPase of Reovirus λ1 protein (32.Bisaillon M. Lemay G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 29954-29957Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar). Our preliminary competition experiments with SFV Nsp2-N with GTP and RNA substrates showed that the RNA triphosphatase activity was increased rather than decreased in the presence of GTP, strongly suggesting that the NTPase and RNA triphosphatase activities have different reaction centers (data not shown). Mutation in the NTP-binding site (K192N) abolished both activities, suggesting a close connection between them. Different reaction centers for NTPase and RNA triphosphatase have been suggested also for the FlavivirusWest Nile NS3 protein (68 kDa) (38.Wengler G. Wengler G. Virology. 1993; 197: 265-273Crossref PubMed Scopus (175) Google Scholar), which also has RNA helicase activity like Alphavirus Nsp2 (37.Wengler G. Wengler G. Virology. 1991; 184: 707-715Crossref PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar, 39.Gallinari P. Brennan D. Nardi C. Brunetti M. Tomei L. Steinkuhler C. de Francesco R. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 6758-6769Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Different reaction centers may be necessary for NS3 and Nsp2, since RNA helicases utilize the energy released from the hydrolysis of NTPs (14.Gomez de Cedron M. Ehsani N. Mikkola M. Garcia J.A. Kääriäinen L. FEBS Lett. 1999; 448: 19-22Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar, 40.Bird L.E. Subramanya H.S. Wigley D.B. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 1998; 8: 14-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar). In contrast to the RNA triphosphatase activity, which is needed only in the modification of the 5′ end of the nascent RNA, RNA helicase activity is required throughout the RNA replication cycle. This may mean that different Nsp2 (and possibly NS3) molecules are involved in these two processes. One part of Nsp2 molecules would be tightly associated with Nsp1 in the capping enzyme complex, and the other part could operate alone, perhaps as a homo-oligomer (40.Bird L.E. Subramanya H.S. Wigley D.B. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 1998; 8: 14-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar), in the RNA helicase function. This scenario might gain support from the observation that these two enzymatic activities of Nsp2 differ in respect to the optimal NaCl concentration. RNA triphosphatase is active in a wide concentration range (50 to 300 mm), whereas higher than 100 mm concentrations of NaCl were inhibitory for the RNA helicase function (14.Gomez de Cedron M. Ehsani N. Mikkola M. Garcia J.A. Kääriäinen L. FEBS Lett. 1999; 448: 19-22Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar).Table IProperties of RNA triphosphatasesSourceNameEnzymatic activitiesDivalent cation optimumK m 5′-TPK mNTPaseReferences5′-TPNTPasemmμmμmVaccinia virusD15′-TP, NTPase, GT, MTaGuanine-7N-methyltransferase activity of D1 requires presence of an additional protein D12 (21).Mg2+1–2Mg2+201.080031.Myette J.R. Niles E.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 11945-11952Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google ScholarS. cerevisiaeCet15′-TP, NTPaseMg2+1.0Mg2+ 10–201.0ND33.Itoh N. Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 13930-13936Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar–34.Itoh N. Yamada H. Kaziro Y. Mizumoto K. J. Biol. Chem. 1987; 262: 1989-1995Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google ScholarMn2+ 1–3Baculovirus (AcNPV)LEF-45′-TP, NTPase, GTMg2+2.5Mg2+ 10–20ND4335.Gross C.H. Shuman S. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 10020-10028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 36.Jin J. Dong W. Guarino L.A. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 10003-10010Crossref PubMed Google ScholarMn2+ 0.1–0.3Mn2+ 0.3Reovirusλ15′-TP, NTPase, RNA helicaseMg2+ 0.2Mg2+ 2.50.262.032.Bisaillon M. Lemay G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 29954-29957Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google ScholarFlavivirus West NileNS35′-TP, NTPase, RNA helicase, proteaseNot requiredMg2+2.0NDND37.Wengler G. Wengler G. Virology. 1991; 184: 707-715Crossref PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar, 38.Wengler G. Wengler G. Virology. 1993; 197: 265-273Crossref PubMed Scopus (175) Google ScholarFlavivirus Hepatitis CNS35′-TP, NTPase, RNA helicase, proteaseNDMg2+2.0NDND39.Gallinari P. Brennan D. Nardi C. Brunetti M. Tomei L. Steinkuhler C. de Francesco R. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 6758-6769Crossref PubMed Google ScholarAlphavirus SFVNsp25′-TP, NTPase, RNA helicase, proteaseMg2+ 1.0–2.0Mg2+5.02.990This studyMn2+0.1Mn2+ 0.1ND, not determined; NTPase, nucleoside triphosphatase; 5′-TP, RNA 5′ triphosphatase; GT, guanylyltransferase.a Guanine-7N-methyltransferase activity of D1 requires presence of an additional protein D12 (21.Shuman S. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 1995; 50: 101-129Crossref PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). Open table in a new tab ND, not determined; NTPase, nucleoside triphosphatase; 5′-TP, RNA 5′ triphosphatase; GT, guanylyltransferase. Triphosphatases have been classified as metal-dependent and metal-independent enzymes according to the influence of divalent cations (41.Ho C.K. Pei Y. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 34151-34156Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar). The RNA triphosphatases from mammals, brine shrimp, and West Nile virus are active in the absence of divalent cations, and addition of them in fact inhibits triphosphatase activity (33.Itoh N. Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 13930-13936Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 42.Yagi Y. Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. EMBO J. 1983; 2: 611-615Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar, 43.Yagi Y. Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 4695-4698Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Interestingly, a mammalian RNA triphosphatase has been shown to have a mechanism for phosphoryl group removal similar to that of protein-tyrosine phosphatases. This class of enzymes does not require metal ions (Ref. 44.Wen Y. Yue Z. Shatkin A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 12226-12231Crossref PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar and references therein). Activities of yeast (41.Ho C.K. Pei Y. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 34151-34156Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar),Reovirus (32.Bisaillon M. Lemay G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 29954-29957Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar), vaccinia virus (21.Shuman S. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 1995; 50: 101-129Crossref PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar, 45.Shuman S. Moss B. Methods Enzymol. 1990; 181: 170-180Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar), and baculovirus LEF-4 (35.Gross C.H. Shuman S. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 10020-10028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 36.Jin J. Dong W. Guarino L.A. J. Virol. 1998; 72: 10003-10010Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) RNA triphosphatases are dependent on divalent cations (Table I). In this respect, Alphavirus RNA triphosphatase is similar to the other metal-dependent enzymes. However, no significant homology could be found for the amino-terminal part of Nsp2 with viral or cellular RNA triphosphatases. Four functions of Alphavirus Nsp2, RNA triphosphatase, NTPase, RNA helicase, and protease activities, are the same as those ofFlavivirus NS3. However, there is essentially no homology between NS3 and Nsp2 at the level of amino acid sequences (47.Koonin E.V. Dolja V.V. Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 1993; 28: 375-430Crossref PubMed Scopus (916) Google Scholar). Moreover, Nsp2 is dependent on divalent cations, whereas NS3 is stimulated by EDTA. In addition, the RNA triphosphatase activity of Nsp2 is located at the amino terminus, whereas in NS3 it is in the carboxyl-terminal region of the molecule (37.Wengler G. Wengler G. Virology. 1991; 184: 707-715Crossref PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar). Thus, our results imply that the Alphavirus RNA triphosphatase is unique among the RNA triphosphatases and exemplifies a novel divalent cation-dependent RNA triphosphatase, which is activated by both Mn2+ and Mg2+ ions. Recently the three-dimensional structure of the divalent cation dependent RNA triphosphatase Cet1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been solved at high resolution. It reveals a tunnel structure consisting of an eight-stranded antiparallel β-barrel into which the 5′ end of the RNA protrudes. The authors (48.Lima C.D. Wang L.K. Shuman S. Cell. 1999; 99: 533-543Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar) propose a mechanism for the specific hydrolysis of the γ-phosphate as well as for the binding of Cet1 with the guanylyltransferase subunit (Ceg1). Essential glutamate residues, conserved in baculovirus LEF 4 and vaccinia virus D1 RNA triphosphatases, are involved in the metal binding of Cet1, suggesting structural similarity between these enzymes. Secondary structure prediction for the amino-terminal part (1–360 aa) of Nsp2 suggests that it consists mostly of β-strands similarly to Cet1. This region has also clusters of glutamate residues that could have analogous functions to Glu-305, Glu-307, Glu-492, Glu-494, and Glu-496 of Cet 1 (48.Lima C.D. Wang L.K. Shuman S. Cell. 1999; 99: 533-543Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar, 49.Lehman K. Schwer B. Ho C.K. Rouzankina I. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 22668-22678Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 50.Pei Y. Ho C.K. Schwer B. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 28865-28874Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar). The composition of the capping apparatus differs between different species. The tight association of RNA triphosphatase and guanylyltransferase activities in the same protein seems to be a characteristic feature for most eukaryotic and viral mRNA capping systems. The best characterized vaccinia virus capping enzyme is a complex of two subunits D1 (95 kDa) and D12 (33 kDa). The RNA triphosphatase and guanylyltransferase reactions are carried out by the amino-terminal part of D1, whereas the carboxyl-terminal part together with D12 is responsible for the methyltransferase activity (21.Shuman S. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 1995; 50: 101-129Crossref PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). TheS. cerevisiae capping apparatus consists of three proteins with RNA triphosphatase (Cet1, 80 kDa), guanylyltransferase (Ceg1, 52 kDa), and methyltransferase (Abd1, 50 kDa) activities (33.Itoh N. Mizumoto K. Kaziro Y. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 13930-13936Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 34.Itoh N. Yamada H. Kaziro Y. Mizumoto K. J. Biol. Chem. 1987; 262: 1989-1995Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 51.Shibagaki Y. Itoh N. Yamada H. Nagata S. Mizumoto K. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 9521-9528Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Metazoan species possess a two-component capping apparatus consisting of a bifunctional RNA triphosphatase/guanylyltransferase polypeptide (Hce1, 66 kDa) and a separate methyltransferase polypeptide (Hcm1, 52 kDa). The RNA triphosphatase activity is not accompanied by NTPase activity, unlike other known enzymes (41.Ho C.K. Pei Y. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 34151-34156Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar, 52.Saha N. Schwer B. Shuman S. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 16553-16562Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). In the capping reactions catalyzed by such enzyme complexes, the order of reactions is RNA triphosphatase, then guanylyltransferase, and finally methyltransferase, which methylates the unmethylated cap at the 5′ end of the nascent RNA molecule. According to these results, theAlphavirus capping apparatus consists of two replicase proteins, Nsp2, having the RNA triphosphatase activity, and Nsp1, with combined methyltransferase and guanylyltransferase activities. The guanylyltransferase and methyltransferase reactions take place in reverse order, as compared with capping of cellular and most other viral mRNAs. The Alphavirus capping apparatus is part of an RNA replicase complex in the cytoplasm of Alphavirus-infected cells. The complex is tightly bound to the surface of modified endosomes and lysosomes (53.Froshauer S. Kartenbeck J. Helenius A. J. Cell Biol. 1988; 107: 2075-2086Crossref PubMed Scopus (308) Google Scholar, 54.Peränen J. Kääriäinen L. J. Virol. 1991; 65: 1623-1627Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 55.Peränen J. Laakkonen P. Hyvönen M. Kääriäinen L. Virology. 1995; 208: 610-620Crossref PubMed Scopus (85) Google Scholar) due to interaction of Nsp1 with membrane lipids. This interaction is mediated by an amphipathic peptide in the middle of the Nsp1 molecule (46.Ahola T. Lampio A. Auvinen P. Kääriäinen L. EMBO J. 1999; 18: 3164-3172Crossref PubMed Scopus (141) Google Scholar) and strengthened by palmitate chains linked to the carboxyl-terminal cysteine residues 418–420 (25.Laakkonen P. Ahola T. Kääriäinen L. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 28567-28571Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). Attachment of the RNA polymerase complex to the membranes implies that during the polymerization of the nascent RNA molecule the template RNA must move through the fixed polymerase complex. One of the first events during this process is the capping of the nascent RNA molecule. We thank Airi Sinkko and Tarja Välimäki for technical assistance and Dr. Marja Makarow and Dr. Mart Saarma for critical reading of the manuscript." @default.
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W1968072008 title "Identification of a Novel Function of the AlphavirusCapping Apparatus" @default.
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