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• W1970719322 abstract "Smith'sTheTheoryofMoralSentiments: Sympathy,Women,andEmulation MAUREENHARKIN Ofthediversequestionsengagedbythediscourseonsympathyin eighteenth-centuryBritain,itisthefunction,orambition,ofsympathyto promotesocialcohesionandtoprovideasupporttoprevailingsocial conditions,whichhasdominatedmostrecentcriticalattentiontothis discourse.Amongcriticsattemptingtolinktheworksoftheoristslike AdamSmithandDavidHumetobothsocialpracticeandaesthetic (especiallyliterary)production,1Smith'sTheTheoryofMoralSentiments (1759)occupiesapositionofeminence,apositionwhichowessomething toSmith'sstatusastheauthoroftheWealthofNations,aswellastothe complexityoftheTheory'smodelofsympathy,andtoitscontemporary success.2MostoftheserecentdiscussionshavetendedtoviewSmith's conceptofsympathyasessentiallyprovidingaprincipleofvirtueadapted foracommercialsociety.InNicholasPhillipson'srepresentativeaccount, forexample,thepropensitytosympathizewiththejoysandmisfortunesof one'sfellowsprovidesauseful,evennecessarycountertotheatomizing tendenciesofthesocietyofself-interestedtradersandhigglersofSmith's economictheory.TheTheoryisdescribedasarticulatingasystemof socialbondingbasedonsympathy,onewhichwouldbeof[more]useto ...menofmiddlingrank,livinginamodern,commercialsociety...than thelibertariancivicvirtuesoftheclassicalrepublican.3 AbsentfromanalysessuchasPhillipson'sisaconsiderationoftheplace ofwomeninSmith'sschema,anomissionallthemoresurprisinginthat Smithmakesfrequentreferencetotheirrole.Inoppositiontoreadings whichprivilegetheproductionofcommunitythroughsympathy,feminist criticismofSmithhashighlightedtherestrictionsanddivisionseffectively imposedbyanotionofcommunitybasedonsympathybetweenmen.Here 175 176/HARKIN theemphasishasbeenonSmith'sexclusionofwomenfromthepracticeof thissocialvirtue,4eitherbecausetheyareunabletocompelaproperlypublicacknowledgmentoftheireffortsorfailtoexercisetherigorandself - disciplinenecessarytovirtue.LucindaCole,trackingthenumerous instancesinSmith'stextofcriticismanddistasteforwhatpassesforvirtue amongwomen,concludesthatSmithiansympathyisconfinedtomen, basedontheresemblanceandmutualadmirationof(upwardlymobile)men foreachother,andthatitunderpinsahomosocialvisionofcommunity5 wherewomendropoutentirelyfromthecircuitofsocialexchange. Inraisingquestionsaboutthenatureofpoliticalcommunityandthe genderingofSmith'sconstructions,Phillipson,Cole,andothersopenpaths forfuturework;yet,Iwouldargue,theyalsomakeafundamentalmiscal- culationaboutSmith'sposition.InvestinginthestereotypeofSmithas zealousandunwaveringprophetofanewmoralorderfoundedoncommer- cialismandreadingtheTheory,ineffect,ascompanionvolumeandgroundworkforthemoreconfidentassessmentofthebenefitsofcommercialismin TheWealthofNations,theseaccountseitherignoreSmith'sdoubtsabout theperniciousaspectsofsympathy,orattempttoresolvethesedoubtsby dividingsympathyintoahigher,masculineformandafemininesub- variant,designatedexcessivesympathy.6Itismycontentionthatneither ofthesereadingsallowforthecomplexityofSmith'searlyanalysisofthe mechanismsofsocialorder,oracknowledgetheuneasepervadinghisstudy ofsympathy,whichforSmithisalwaysatleastpotentiallyexcessive. RepresentedbySmithassimultaneouslyprovidingasociallyuseful,bond- ingforceandasafeminineanddisruptiveresponse,sympathyisbyno meansacharacteristicallymalephenomenonwhichhelpsmaintainsocial order.Rather,drawingfromeighteenth-centurydiscourseonwomenandthe novel,Smithrepeatedlydefinessympathyasanessentiallyfemininetendencytoimaginativelyrecreatetheexperienceofothers ,animpulseatwork inallkindsofsocialexchange,thatrequirescertainmechanismsofcontrol.7 Smith'sconceptofsympathy,inshort,shouldbereadasanattemptto describesomeoftheforcesanimatingacommercialandconsumeristage, ratherthanasaputativesolutiontotheproblemofconflictingpersonaland classinterestsorawayofex(or)cisingwomenfromsocialexchange.Itis therecurrentimageofatypicallyfemininecompulsiontosympathetic emulationastheheartofsocialandcommerciallifethatmakestheTheory somethingquiteotherthanablueprintformeninacommercialsociety. InthisessayIwillnotesomeofthewaysinwhichsympathyandthe feminineintersectintheTheorytocomplicatereadingsoftheTheoryasa systemofpracticalmorality,demonstratingthatbothendorsementsand critiquesofthesuccessofSmithasarchitectofcommunityhavereliedona toounproblematicnotionofwhat,forSmith,constitutesthatcommunity. Smith'sTheoryofMoralSentiments/177 LikeHumeinΛTreatiseofHumanNature,Smithpositssympathyas thefoundationofmorality8inthesystemofethicsdescribedinTheTheory ofMoralSentiments.Itmotivatestheconcernforandbehaviourtoward othersthatSmithdescribesviathesenseofpropriety,adirectsympathy withtheaffectionsandmotivesofthepersonwhoacts,andofmerit,an indirectsympathywiththegratitudeofthepersonwho...isactedupon (TMS,74).However,thoughitplayssuchanimportantpartinSmith's scheme,thestatusofsympathyasasolutiontofundamentalepistemologi- calandmoralquestions—howdoweknowwhatothersfeel?howshouldwe acttowardsothers?—islessassuredthaninHume,whoassertsthat,No qualityofhumannatureismoreremarkable...thanthatpropensitywe havetosympathizewithothers,andtoreceivebycommunicationtheirin- clinationsandsentiments,howeverdifferentfrom,orcontrarytoourown. ...[B]ysympathy...the...idea[ofanother'spassions]ispresently convertedintoanimpression,andacquiressuchadegreeofforceand vivacity,astobecometheverypassionitself(THN,316—17).Smith's accountofthesympatheticrecreationofthesentimentsofothersexhibits considerablylessconfidencethanHume'sthatthecopythusproducedwill beeitherastrongorfaithfulone.Sympathy,ratherthantransmittingan exactcopyofthesentimentsofanother,isthemoreorlessfaultymeansby whichwesolvetheproblemofourignoranceofthesesentiments,by representinginourimaginationcopiesofwhatwewouldfeelinthat person'splace.IntheopeninglinesoftheTreatise,Smithprovidesa strikingexampleoftheworkingsofsympathyinthespectacleoftheman ontherack: Aswehavenoimmediateexperienceofwhatothermenfeel,wecan formnoideaofthemannerinwhichtheyareaffected,butby conceivingwhatweourselvesshouldfeelinthelikesituation.Though ourbrotherisupontherack,aslongasweourselvesareatourease,our senseswillneverinformusofwhathesuffers.Theyneverdid,and nevercancarryusbeyondourownperson,anditisbytheimagination onlythatwecanformanyconceptionofwhatarehissensations. Neithercanthatfacultyhelpustothisanyotherway,thanby representingtouswhatwouldbeourown,ifwewereinhiscase.Itis bytheimpressionsofourownsensesonly,notthoseofhis,whichour imaginationscopy.Bytheimaginationweplaceourselvesinhis situation,weconceiveourselvesenduringallthesametorments,we enterasitwereintohisbody,andbecomeinsomemeasurethesame personwithhim,andthenceformsomeideaofhissensations,and evenfeelsomethingwhich,thoughweakerindegree,isnotaltogether unlikethem.Hisagonies,whentheyarethusbroughthometo ourselves,whenwehavethusadoptedandmadethemourown,beginat lasttoaffectus,andwethentrembleandshudderatthethoughtofwhat hefeels.Forastobeinpainordistressofanykindexcitesthemost excessivesorrow,sotoconceiveortoimaginethatweareinit,excites 178/HARKIN somedegreeofthesameemotion,inproportiontothevivacityor dulnessoftheconception.(TMS,9) Hume'smetaphorofthemirrorofsympathy9isreplacedinSmithby thenotionoftheobservingsubject'simaginativerepresentationofthe experiencesofothers:representationsthathaveweaker,andfarlesscertain tiestotheoriginal,atleastinthecaseofsympathywithmisfortune. Smith'sconceptofsympathy,itshouldbenoted,isnotlimitedtocasesof pityforvictims.Hisaccountindeedemphasizesfellow-feelingwithgood fortune(TMS,50),herefollowingHume'slongdiscussionintheTreatise, OfOurEsteemfortheRichandPowerful,10aformofsympathy,which, aswillbecomeclearer,isbesetwithfarfewerobstacles.Butinopeninghis treatisewiththisarrestingimageofthebeholder'sresponsetoavictimof torture,11Smithevidentlyseekstodramatizethediscrepanciesbetweenthe sentimentsofobserverandobservedinthescenesofdistress. Theworkingsofsympathy,asderivedfromthistableau,haveafurther dimension.Sympathytowardsanotherisnotlimitedtotheobserver;the sufferertoo,makesanefforttoenterinto,orrecreatethesentimentsofthe spectators:Toseetheemotionsof[thespectators']hearts...beattimeto hisown...constitutes[thesufferer's]soleconsolation.Buthecanonly hopetoobtainthisbyloweringhispassiontothatpitch,inwhichthe spectatorsarecapableofgoingalongwithhim(TMS,22).Bothparties endeavourtoadjusttheirsentimentstothoseoftheother,motivatedbyan apparentneedforsympatheticcommunion.Ideallyathird,medianpointis attained:Theproprietyofeverypassionexcitedbyobjectspeculiarly relatedtoourselves,thepitchwhichthespectatorcangoalongwith,must lie,itisevident,inacertainmediocrity(TMS,27). Theattempt,however,whichobserverandobservedmaketoapproximate ascloselyaseachcanthesentimentsoftheother,isclearlyunequal.This resultsintwokindsofvirtuouseffort.Theattemptmadebythebystander toenterintothesentimentsofthesuffererrequireonlythatheorshe imaginethesentimentslikelytobeexperiencedbytheother.Thiseffort producesthesoft,thegentle,theamiablevirtues,thevirtuesofcandid condescensionandindulgenthumanity(TMS,23).Thegreatereffortmade bythesufferer,toimaginethefeelingsofawitnessandthen,outofakind ofconsiderationofthelimitsoftheobserver'ssympatheticcapacity,to moderatetheexpressionofhissuffering,underliesthegreat,theawfuland respectable,thevirtuesofself-denial,ofself-government,ofthatcommand ofthepassionswhichsubjectsallthemovementsofournaturetowhatour owndignityandhonour,andtheproprietyofourownconductrequire (TMS,23).Smith'sdistinction,apartfromechoingHume'sdistinctionon theamiableandawfulcharactersofCaesarandCato(THN,607),alsorecalls EdmundBurke'sdiscussionofvirtueinhisPhilosophicalEnquiryintothe OriginofOurIdeasoftheSublimeandtheBeautifulpublishedtwoyears earlier.Burke'ssublimevirtues,suchasfortitude,justiceandwisdom, whichproduceterrorratherthanlove,areassociatedwiththeauthorityof Smith'sTheoryofMoralSentiments/179 afather,andcontrastwiththelesser,softer,amiable,orbeautiful virtues,whichincludeeasinessoftemper,compassion,kindnessand liberality,typifiedinamother'sfondnessandindulgence.12Theparallel withBurke'sdivisionofvirtuesalongsuchlinesfurtherunderlinesSmith's obviousgenderingoftheseamiableandgreatvirtues.Thetermsin whichhedescribesthetwokindsofvirtuesestablishtheobserver's sentimentsofcompassionasfeminine,whiletheawfulsentimentsofthe sufferer,orobjectofhersympatheticgaze,aregivenmasculinestatus. Smith'sargument,then,isthattheabilityorinclinationtofeelintense sympathyforothers,especiallyinscenesofdistress,isafeminineresponse, whiletheabilitytocombinethiswithgreatself-restraint,tobeasensitive spectatorofthedistressesofothersevenwhenthenaturalobjectofall spectatorialsympathy,istypicallymasculine.Hisrepresentationofthe greatereffortrequiredinsuchself-restraintandconsiderationforthefeelings ofthèspectator,comparedtomeresympathy,clearlyunderminestheclaim forsympathyasavirtue. ThisgenderingofvirtuesisexplicitinSmith'sremarksonhumanityand generosity: Humanityisthevirtueofawoman,generosityofaman.Thefair-sex, whohavecommonlymuchmoretendernessthanours,haveseldomso muchgenerosity.Thatwomenrarelymakeconsiderabledonations,is anobservationofthecivillaw.Humanityconsistsmerelyinthe exquisitefellow-feelingwhichthespectatorentertainswiththe sentimentsofthepersonsprincipallyconcerned,soastogrievefor theirsufferings,toresenttheirinjuries,andtorejoiceattheirgood fortune.Themosthumaneactionsrequirenoself-denial,noselfcommand ,nogreatexertionofthesenseofpropriety.Theyconsist onlyindoingwhatthisexquisitesympathywouldofitsownaccord promptustodo.Butitisotherwisewithgenerosity.Weneverare generousexceptwheninsomerespectweprefersomeotherpersonto ourselves,andsacrificesomegreatandimportantinterestofourownto anequalinterestofafriendorofasuperior.Themanwhogivesuphis pretensionstoanofficethatwasthegreatobjectofhisambition, becauseheimaginesthattheservicesofanotherarebetterentitledto it;themanwhoexposeshislifetodefendthatofhisfriend,whichhe judgestobeofmoreimportance;neitherofthemactfromhumanity,or becausetheyfeelmoreexquisitelywhatconcernsthatotherperson thanwhatconcernsthemselves.Theybothconsiderthoseopposite interests,notinthelightinwhichtheynaturallyappearto themselves,butinthatinwhichtheyapppeartoothers....Whento theinterestofthisotherperson,therefore,theysacrificetheirown, theyaccommodatethemselvestothesentimentsofthespectator,and byaneffortofmagnanimityactaccordingtothoseviewsofthings which,theyfeel,mustnaturallyoccurtoanythirdperson.Thesoldier whothrowsawayhislifeinordertodefendthatofhisofficer,would perhapsbebutlittleaffectedbythedeathofthatofficer,ifitshould happenwithoutanyfaultofhisown....Butwhenheendeavourstoact 180/HARKIN soastodeserveapplause,andtomaketheimpartialspectatorenter intotheprinciplesofhisconduct,hefeels,thattoeverybodybut himself,hisownlifeisatriflecomparedwiththatofhisofficer. (TMS,190-91) Humanityisnothingbutthemoreorlesseffortlesssympathetic recreationofthesentimentsofanother,whilegenerosityistheresultofa considerationofthesituationfromtheperspectiveofanimpartialspectator, andofthereadinesstotranslatesuchanunderstandingintoaction,regardless ofrisk.Humanityorsympathy,therefore,isaninadequatebasisfor morality,tooeasilyarousedandtoocheaplyindulgedtobemuchrespected. Itisthevirtuepractisedbyniggardlywomen,whoneedmakenogifts,no effortofself-restraint,norriskanyaction.Masculinegenerosityaccepts suchduties,whichthelogicofthepassageabovetransformssuccessively fromcharitabledonations,intothesacrificeofambition,andthenceinto martyrdom.Women'sfailureeithertotransformfeelingsintodeeds,orto considermattersfromthepointofviewoftheimpartialspectatormarks sympathyasalesservirtue.Atthispoint,itmaybeadded,anyclaimthat sympathyformsthebasisforaspecificallyhomosocialbondinginSmith's schemaiseffectivelyunderminedbythegenderingofsympathyitselfas feminine.13 Smithappearstobelievethatwomen'skeensympathyisdivorcedfrom actionthroughawilledmiserlinessratherthanincapacity.Buthis commentsonthegenerousmanwhoassumestheperspectiveofthe impartialspectator,andactsacordingly,ratherthanfollowinghisown inclinationorinterest,suggestaseconddifferencebetweenmaleandfemale virtue,onebasednotonvolitionbutonsimpleincapacityonthepartof women.Smith'sconceptoftheimpartialspectator,whichisgivenhereas theseconddefiningdifferencebetweenfemininesympathyandmasculine generosity,playsacrucialroleinTheTheoryofMoralSentiments.This figureconstitutesathird,privilegedspectatorinthesceneofsympathy, which,withitsdoublingofaudienceandspectacleis,asDavidMarshallhas demonstrated,alreadyathoroughlytheatricalone,criss-crossedwithgazes.14 Smithpositsthisfigureastheidealobserver,whoseescorrectlyhowmuch distress,joy,indifference,andsoforth,agiveneventactuallywarrants, becausefreeoftheimmediateself-concernorpartialityofeitherobservedor observer.Moreover,itistheimpartialspectator,ratherthananyprompting bysympathy,whodictateswhatappropriate,ormoralactionistobetaken. Theimpartialspectatoractsasajudgeofouractionstowardsothersand remindsusoftherelativeinsignificanceofourownjoysandwoes(TMS, 83).It,orrather,he,issupposedtobetheidealmanwithinthebreast, introjectedbythemoralsubject(TMS,148),thedesireofpleasingwhom inspiresthemostgenerousactions,themostsevereself-restraintin spectatorandobjectofthesceneofsympathyalike. Smith'sTheoryofMoralSentiments/181 Inordertodefendourselvesfrom...partialjudgments,wesoonlearn tosetupinourownmindsajudgebetweenourselvesandthosewelive with.Weconceiveourselvestobeactinginthepresenceofaperson quitecandidandequitable,ofonewhohasnoparticularrelationeither toourselves,ortothosewhoseinterestsareaffectedbyourconduct, whoisneitherfather,norbrother,norfriendeithertothemortous,but ismerelyamaningeneral,animpartialspectator.(TMS,129n) Thisimpartialspectator,thisjudgeormanwithinthebreastisaterm ofconsiderablecomplexityinSmith..." @default.
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• W1970719322 title "Smith's <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>: Sympathy, Women, and Emulation" @default.
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