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• W1972987115 abstract "We show that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) induce TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in T cells. In cells deficient for NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO)/IKKγ, an essential component of the NF-κB-inducing I-κB kinase (IKK) complex, induction of TRAIL expression was completely abrogated but was recovered in cells restored for IKKγ expression. In cells deficient for receptor-interacting protein expression TNF, but not PMA-induced TRAIL expression was blocked. Inhibition of protein synthesis with cycloheximide blocked PMA, but not TNF-induced up-regulation of TRAIL. As both TNF and PMA rapidly induce NF-κB activation this suggests that NEMO/IKKγ-dependent activation of the NF-κB pathway is necessary but not sufficient for up-regulation of TRAIL in T cells. The capability of the NF-κB pathway to induce the potent death ligand TRAIL may explain the reported proapoptotic features of this typically antiapoptotic pathway. We show that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) induce TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in T cells. In cells deficient for NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO)/IKKγ, an essential component of the NF-κB-inducing I-κB kinase (IKK) complex, induction of TRAIL expression was completely abrogated but was recovered in cells restored for IKKγ expression. In cells deficient for receptor-interacting protein expression TNF, but not PMA-induced TRAIL expression was blocked. Inhibition of protein synthesis with cycloheximide blocked PMA, but not TNF-induced up-regulation of TRAIL. As both TNF and PMA rapidly induce NF-κB activation this suggests that NEMO/IKKγ-dependent activation of the NF-κB pathway is necessary but not sufficient for up-regulation of TRAIL in T cells. The capability of the NF-κB pathway to induce the potent death ligand TRAIL may explain the reported proapoptotic features of this typically antiapoptotic pathway. tumor necrosis factor TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand Fas ligand interferon NF-κB essential modulator FLICE-inhibitory protein monoclonal antibody receptor-interacting protein I-κB kinase phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate/ionomycin phytohemagglutinin cycloheximide Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)1-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)/Apo2L belongs to the TNF ligand family and induces apoptosis in a broad range of tumor cells with apparently no cytotoxic activity on most nontransformed cells. TRAIL mRNA was found in a variety of tissues, in particular in activated T cells, and is often induced by interferons (1Wang Q. Ji Y. Wang X. Evers B.M. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 276: 466-471Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). TRAIL interacts with five different members of the TNF receptor superfamily: TRAIL-R1/DR4, TRAIL-R2/DR5/TRICK2/Killer, TRAIL-R3/TRID/DcR1/LIT, TRAIL-R4/TRUNDD/DcR2 and osteoprotegerin (2Locksley R.M. Killeen N. Lenardo M.J. Cell. 2001; 104: 487-501Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2962) Google Scholar). TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 contain a death domain and mediate the apoptotic response toward TRAIL. TRAIL-R3, lacking a cytoplasmic domain, is anchored to the cell surface by modification with glycophospholipids and is regarded as a decoy receptor for TRAIL. TRAIL-R4 has an incomplete cytoplasmic death domain and is therefore incapable of signaling apoptosis but is still able to activate the antiapoptotic NF-κB pathway. Thus, TRAIL-R4 is maybe involved in regulation of the apoptotic TRAIL response at the cellular level. The soluble receptor osteoprotegerin, which otherwise has a critical role in regulation of osteoclastogenesis, may act as a systemic negative regulator of TRAIL-induced apoptosis (1Wang Q. Ji Y. Wang X. Evers B.M. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 276: 466-471Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar).TRAIL is involved in the induction of cell death by activated CD4+ T cells (3Thomas W.D. Hersey P. J. Immunol. 1998; 161: 2195-2200PubMed Google Scholar, 4Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Nakayama M. Kawasaki A. Akiba H. Okumura K. Yagita H. J. Immunol. 1999; 162: 2639-2647PubMed Google Scholar), dendritic cells (5Fanger N.A. Maliszewski C.R. Schooley K. Griffith T.S. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 190: 1155-1164Crossref PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar), and NK cells (6Zamai L. Ahmad M. Bennett I.M. Azzoni L. Alnemri E.S. Perussia B. J. Exp. Med. 1998; 188: 2375-2380Crossref PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar). TRAIL may also play a role in activation-induced T cell death during HIV infection (7Katsikis P.D. Garcia-Ojeda M.E. Torres-Roca J.F. Tijoe I.M. Smith C.A. Herzenberg L.A. Herzenberg L.A. J. Exp. Med. 1997; 186: 1365-1372Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 8Jeremias I. Herr I. Boehler T. Debatin K.M. Eur. J. Immunol. 1998; 28: 143-152Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar, 9Miura Y. Misawa N. Maeda N. Inagaki Y. Tanaka Y. Ito M. Kayagaki N. Yamamoto N. Yagita H. Mizusawa H. Koyanagi Y. J. Exp. Med. 2001; 193: 651-660Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). Inhibition of endogenous TRAIL enhances proliferation of autoreactive lymphocytes or synovial cells, thereby contributing to the exacerbation of arthritic inflammation and joint tissue destruction (10Song K. Chen Y. Goke R. Wilmen A. Seidel C. Goke A. Hilliard B. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1095-1104Crossref PubMed Scopus (322) Google Scholar). These data argue for an in vivofunction of TRAIL in the maintenance of immune homeostasis by counteracting autoimmune responses. However, in contrast to FasL, TRAIL inhibits autoimmune inflammation by inhibition of cell cycle progression instead of induction of T cell apoptosis (10Song K. Chen Y. Goke R. Wilmen A. Seidel C. Goke A. Hilliard B. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1095-1104Crossref PubMed Scopus (322) Google Scholar). In accordance with its remarkable tumoricidal activity in vitro, several studies point to a role of TRAIL in anti-tumoral immunity. In this regard, it has been recently shown that TRAIL is the sole principle mediating antitumorigenic activity of interferon-activated human monocytes (11Griffith T.S. Wiley S.R. Kubin M.Z. Sedger L.M. Maliszewski C.R. Fanger N.A. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189: 1343-1354Crossref PubMed Scopus (412) Google Scholar). Moreover, up-regulation of TRAIL plays a central role in IFNγ-mediated antimetastatic effects of interleukin-12 and α-galactosylceramide (12Takeda K. Hayakawa Y. Smyth M.J. Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Kakuta S. Iwakura Y. Yagita H. Okumura K. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 94-100Crossref PubMed Scopus (587) Google Scholar, 13Smyth M.J. Cretney E. Takeda K. Wiltrout R.H. Sedger L.M. Kayagaki N. Yagita H. Okumura K. J. Exp. Med. 2001; 193: 661-670Crossref PubMed Scopus (420) Google Scholar). Further, aside from the capability of dendritic cells to acquire antigen from apoptotic cells to cross-present these antigens to cytotoxic T cells (14Albert M.L. Sauter B. Bhardwaj N. Nature. 1998; 392: 86-89Crossref PubMed Scopus (2024) Google Scholar, 15Albert M.L. Pearce S.F. Francisco L.M. Sauter B. Roy P. Silverstein R.L. Bhardwaj N. J. Exp. Med. 1998; 188: 1359-1368Crossref PubMed Scopus (1059) Google Scholar), dendritic cells directly mediate cellular apoptosis via TRAIL after stimulation with IFNα or IFNγ (5Fanger N.A. Maliszewski C.R. Schooley K. Griffith T.S. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 190: 1155-1164Crossref PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar). Of interest, a recent study indicates that type I IFNs induce the rapid maturation of monocytes into short-lived TRAIL-expressing dendritic cells (16Santini S.M. Lapenta C. Logozzi M. Parlato S. Spada M. Di Pucchio T. Belardelli F. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1777-1788Crossref PubMed Scopus (546) Google Scholar). Moreover, type I IFNs up-regulate TRAIL expression on anti-CD3-stimulated human peripheral blood T cells suggesting that TRAIL contributes to the indirect cytotoxic activity of type I IFNs used in cancer therapy for the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemias and renal cell carcinomas (17Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Nakayama M. Eto H. Okumura K. Yagita H. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189: 1451-1460Crossref PubMed Scopus (430) Google Scholar). In accordance with an antitumoral function of TRAIL, the death domain-containing TRAIL receptors 1 (18Bartke T. Siegmund D. Peters N. Reichwein M. Henkler F. Scheurich P. Wajant H. Oncogene. 2001; 20: 571-580Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar) and 2 (19Wu G.S. Burns T.F. McDonald III, E.R. Jiang W. Meng R. Krantz I.D. Kao G. Gan D.D. Zhou J.Y. Muschel R. Hamilton S.R. Spinner N.B. Markowitz S. Wu G. El Deiry W.S. Nat. Genet. 1997; 17: 141-143Crossref PubMed Scopus (935) Google Scholar) have been identified as targets of p53. In this study we show that TRAIL is induced by TNF and treatment with phorbol ester under critical involvement of NEMO/IKKγ, an essential component of the NF-κB signaling pathway, may account for some of the apoptotic effects described for NF-κB in the literature (20Beg A.A. Sha W.C. Bronson R.T. Baltimore D. Genes Dev. 1995; 9: 2736-2746Crossref PubMed Scopus (409) Google Scholar, 21Abbadie C. Kabrun N. Bouali F. Smardova J. Stehelin D. Vandenbunder B. Enrietto P.J. Cell. 1993; 75: 899-912Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar, 22Ryan K.M. Ernst M.K. Rice N.R. Vousden K.H. Nature. 2000; 404: 892-897Crossref PubMed Scopus (671) Google Scholar, 23Lipton, S. A. (1997) Nat. Med. 320–22.Google Scholar, 24Ravi R. Bedi G.C. Engstrom L.W. Zeng Q. Mookerjee B. Gelinas C. Fuchs E.J. Bedi A. Nat. Cell Biol. 2001; 3: 409-416Crossref PubMed Scopus (301) Google Scholar).RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn a search for apoptosis-related genes regulated by TNF or during T-cell activation, we analyzed Jurkat T-cells treated with TNF or a mixture of PMA/I by RNase protection analysis. Both TNF and PMA/I induced up-regulation of TRAIL mRNA but with clearly distinct kinetics (Fig. 1 A). While TNF-induced half-maximal TRAIL expression already after 1 h and reached a plateau after 3 h (Fig. 1 A, right panel), TRAIL induction by PMA/I was delayed for several hours and reached maximum levels after 15 h (Fig. 1 A, left panel). Similarly delayed kinetics of TRAIL induction was also found in DII/23–7 T-cells (Fig. 1 B). There was no evidence for an up-regulation of TRAIL in the B cell lines BJAB and Raji suggesting that TRAIL up-regulation by TNF and PMA/I is cell type-specific (Fig. 1 C). PMA/I and TNF showed a capacity to induce TRAIL expression in the same range as the well established TRAIL inducers IFNα/β/γ (Fig. 1 D). In all cases two protected TRAIL-specific fragments of slightly different sizes were obtained, suggesting that TRAIL-mRNA exists in at least two different splice forms. In accordance with the barely detectable TRAIL-mRNAs levels in untreated Jurkat cells (Fig. 1 A), we were unable to detect TRAIL protein in non-stimulated cells or cell culture supernatants derived thereof. However, three anti-TRAIL-mAb-reactive protein bands were detectable by Western blotting in lysates of PMA/I-stimulated Jurkat cells whereas no TRAIL was detectable in the supernatants. When Jurkat cells were treated with PHA during the last 30 min of PMA/I stimulation a significant amount of all three TRAIL-mAb-reactive proteins were found in the supernatant (Fig. 1 E). TRAIL protein was also detectable in lysates of TNF-treated cells after immunoprecipitation with TRAIL-R2-Fc and protein A-Sepharose (Fig. 1 F). The size of the smallest anti-TRAIL mAb reactive band (19 kDa, Fig. 1, E and F) corresponds to the size of the already described soluble TRAIL product comprising the extracellular receptor-binding domain of the ligand (27Mariani S.M. Krammer P.H. Eur. J. Immunol. 1998; 28: 973-982Crossref PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholar). The sizes of the two slower migrating anti-TRAIL-mAb reactive proteins (32 and 34 kDa) are in good accordance with that of complete TRAIL, suggesting that these two bands represent two isoforms of full-length TRAIL. PHA-stimulation lead to the secretion of all three anti-TRAIL-mAb reactive proteins, suggesting that PHA induces the release of TRAIL containing microvesicles as described elsewhere (28Martinez-Lorenzo M.J. Anel A. Gamen S. Monleón I. Lasierra P. Larrad L. Pineiro A. Alava M.A. Naval J. J. Immunol. 1999; 163: 1274-1281PubMed Google Scholar) rather than inducing proteolytic processing of cell-bound TRAIL. In PMA/I-treated T cells we also observed up-regulation of FasL and TRAIL-R2 mRNA, and in the B-cell lines PMA/I induced TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 (Fig. 1). Analyses of Jurkat cells exclusively stimulated with PMA or ionomycin revealed that PMA alone is sufficient for the induction of TRAIL (data not shown).TNF and PMA/I are both potent inducers of the NF-κB pathway in Jurkat cells (Fig. 2 A). We therefore analyzed whether this pathway contributes to TRAIL induction in T cells. For this purpose, we analyzed a mutant Jurkat cell line deficient in expression of IKKγ/NEMO (25Harhaj E.W. Good L. Xiao G. Uhlik M. Cvijic M.E. Rivera-Walsh I. Sun S.C. Oncogene. 2000; 19: 1448-1456Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar), an essential part of the NF-κB-inducing I-κB kinase (IKK) complex (29Karin M. Ben Neriah Y. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2000; 18: 621-663Crossref PubMed Scopus (4041) Google Scholar). These IKKγ/NEMO-deficient Jurkat cells are unable to respond with NF-κB activation to a variety of NF-κB inducers including TNF and PMA, but show normal activation of NF-AT and AP1 (30Rivera-Walsh I. Cvijic M.E. Xiao G. Sun S.C. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 25222-25230Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar). As shown in Fig.2 B both TNF and PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL was completely prevented in this mutant Jurkat cell line. However, in a clone derived from the IKKγ/NEMO-deficient Jurkat cell line, in which NF-κB responsiveness had been restored by retransfection with an IKKγ expression construct (30Rivera-Walsh I. Cvijic M.E. Xiao G. Sun S.C. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 25222-25230Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar), responsiveness of the TRAIL gene toward PMA/I and TNF was partly restored (Fig. 2 A,right panel). Further, PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL-R2, but not FasL induction, was significantly inhibited in the IKKγ/NEMO-deficient Jurkat cells (Fig. 2 A). Involvement of the NF-κB pathway in PMA/I-induced TRAIL-R2 expression is in good agreement with some recent studies showing a critical role of the cRel subunit of NF-κB in expression of TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 (24Ravi R. Bedi G.C. Engstrom L.W. Zeng Q. Mookerjee B. Gelinas C. Fuchs E.J. Bedi A. Nat. Cell Biol. 2001; 3: 409-416Crossref PubMed Scopus (301) Google Scholar). Lack of requirement of the NF-κB pathway for FasL gene induction in IKKγ/NEMO-deficient Jurkat cells has already been described elsewhere (30Rivera-Walsh I. Cvijic M.E. Xiao G. Sun S.C. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 25222-25230Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar) and suggests that the death ligands TRAIL and FasL are up-regulated during T cell activation by at least partially distinct signaling pathways. In the case of TNF-induced TRAIL expression we analyzed the involvement of the NF-κB pathway in a second independent genetic model, i.e. Jurkat T-cells deficient in RIP expression (26Ting A.T. Pimentel-Muinos F.X. Seed B. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 6189-6196Crossref PubMed Scopus (468) Google Scholar). The RIP kinase was originally isolated as a Fas interacting death domain-containing kinase, but is also part of the TNF-R1 signaling complex and plays an essential role in TNF-R1-mediated NF-κB activation (31Wajant H. Grell M. Scheurich P. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 1999; 10: 15-26Crossref PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar). Lack of RIP expression impaired TNF-induced up-regulation of TRAIL (Fig. 2 C) but had no significant effect on PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL and TRAIL-R2 (data not shown).Figure 2TNF and PMA/I induce TRAIL under critical involvement of the NF-κB pathway. A, Jurkat cells were challenged with TNF (20 ng/ml) or PMA/I (100 nm/1 μg/ml), were harvested after the indicated time, and analyzed for NF-κB activation by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. For further verification of TNF- and PMA/I-induced NF-κB activation, Jurkat cells were transfected with 30 μg of a NF-κB reporter gene construct by electroporation. After splitting and 1 day recovery, the cells were challenged with TNF or PMA/I. As a control some groups were treated with the proteasome inhibitor Mg132 (20 μg/ml), which interferes with NF-κB activation. After an additional 8 h cells were lysed and analyzed for luciferase activities.B, the parental Jurkat cell line, RIP- and IKKγ-deficient clones derived thereof, as well as an IKKγ-reconstituted clone of the latter, were treated for 6 h with PMA/I or TNF (20 ng/ml). Total RNAs were isolated for RNase protection analysis and 10 μg of each RNA sample were analyzed with a Multi-Probe template set to detect the indicated mRNAs. L32 and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase were included as internal controls.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Thus, our data clearly argue for an essential involvement of IKKγ/NEMO and therefore most likely the NF-κB pathway in TNF- and PMA/I-induced TRAIL expression. However, the data described so far let open the question whether TRAIL induction occurs directly or not. We therefore analyzed the capability of TNF and PMA/I to induce TRAIL-mRNA in the presence of high concentrations of the translation inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX). While PMA/I-induced TRAIL expression was almost completely inhibited in the presence of 50 μg/ml CHX (Fig. 3 A) TNF-mediated up-regulation was not affected by this treatment (Fig.3 B). Thus, while PMA/I engages TRAIL transcription indirectly, TNF induces TRAIL expression directly. As interferons are major inducers of TRAIL, we looked for an involvement of endogenous interferons in PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL. However, we found no evidence for an involvement of interferons in PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL. So, neutralizing mAbs against IFNα receptor chain 2 or interferon-β failed to inhibit TRAIL-induction (data not shown). Moreover, IFNγ is most likely also not involved in PMA/I-induced up-regulation of TRAIL because even saturating concentrations of recombinant IFNγ only marginally up-regulate TRAIL-mRNA (Fig. 1 E). As both PMA/I and TNF rapidly activate NF-κB under essential involvement of IKKγ/NEMO (Fig. 2,A and B), the differential need for protein synthesis challenges the concept of NF-κB dependent up-regulation of TRAIL (see above). A possible explanation could be the existence of a second pathway that synergistically acts with the NF-κB pathway to induce TRAIL and is directly induced by TNF but only indirectly triggered by PMA/I. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that TRAIL induction occurs by an IKKγ/NEMO-dependent pathway being distinct from the NF-κB pathway, which becomes differentially activated by PMA/I and TNF. With respect to the latter possibility, we found no evidence for a NF-κB dependence of an IFN-responsible reporter gene construct containing about 1 kilobase of the TRAIL promoter (data not shown). Although PMA/I stimulation induced the cytotoxic ligand TRAIL and one of its corresponding death receptors the viability of the PMA/I-treated cells was not affected 1 day after treatment. However, upon prolonged incubation time the PMA/I-treated cells started to die. This transient apoptosis resistance observed in the early phase of PMA/I treatment might be due to the concomitant induction of anti-apoptotic factors. Indeed, we have recently shown that PMA/I induces up-regulation of cFLIP, a potent inhibitor of death receptor signaling (Ref. 32Kreuz S. Siegmund D. Scheurich P. Wajant H.,. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 3964-3973Crossref PubMed Scopus (499) Google Scholar, Fig. 3 C). Moreover, 6 h of pretreatment with PMA/I protected Jurkat cells from a subsequent 16-h challenge with TRAIL or FasL with an efficiency comparable with the broad range caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk (Fig.3 D). While TRAIL-induced apoptosis was almost completely blocked by z-VAD-fmk and PMA/I pretreatment, FasL-induced cell death was only partially inhibited by both treatments. This is in good accordance with some recent findings showing that in the absence of CHX, TRAIL induces cell death only via the caspase-dependent Fas-associated death domain protein/caspase-8 pathway, whereas FasL in addition signals necrotic cell death via a caspase-independent RIP-mediated pathway (33Holler N. Zaru R. Micheau O. Thome M. Attinger A. Valitutti S. Bodmer J.L. Schneider P. Seed B. Tschopp J. Nat. Immu. 2000; 1: 489-495Crossref Scopus (1413) Google Scholar, 34Matsumura H. Shimizu Y. Ohsawa Y. Kawahara A. Uchiyama Y. Nagata S. J. Cell Biol. 2000; 151: 1247-1256Crossref PubMed Scopus (203) Google Scholar). Although PMA/I treatment efficiently blocked TRAIL-induced apoptosis, PMA/I treatment per se induced cell death in a significant fraction (20–40%) of the cells (Fig. 3 D and Ref. 30Rivera-Walsh I. Cvijic M.E. Xiao G. Sun S.C. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 25222-25230Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar). This per se cytotoxicity of PMA/I might reflect killing of a subpopulation of Jurkat cells in which unbalanced amounts of TRAIL/FasL and FLIP (and maybe additional anti-apoptotic factors) were induced.Figure 3PMA/I - but not TNF-induced up-regulation of TRAIL requires protein synthesis. A, Jurkat cells were stimulated for the indicated times with PMA/I in the presence or absence of 25 μg/ml CHX and were analyzed by RNase protection assay analysis. B, Jurkat cells were stimulated for 6 h with TNF in the presence or absence of 25 μg/ml CHX and were analyzed by RNase protection assay analysis. C, Total RNA of PMA/I-treated (6 h) and untreated Jurkat cells were analyzed using a customer template set containing TRAIL and cFLIP-specific probes among others. D, Jurkat cells were seeded in 96-well microtiter plates at a density of 50 × 103 cells/well and treated overnight in triplicates with the indicated concentration of cross-linked FasL or cross-linked TRAIL with (open circles) or without (closed circles) z-VAD-fmk (10 μm). In addition, cells were challenged with TRAIL or FasL after 6 h of PMA/I treatment (open squares). Finally, viable cells were quantified by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide method.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)1-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)/Apo2L belongs to the TNF ligand family and induces apoptosis in a broad range of tumor cells with apparently no cytotoxic activity on most nontransformed cells. TRAIL mRNA was found in a variety of tissues, in particular in activated T cells, and is often induced by interferons (1Wang Q. Ji Y. Wang X. Evers B.M. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 276: 466-471Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). TRAIL interacts with five different members of the TNF receptor superfamily: TRAIL-R1/DR4, TRAIL-R2/DR5/TRICK2/Killer, TRAIL-R3/TRID/DcR1/LIT, TRAIL-R4/TRUNDD/DcR2 and osteoprotegerin (2Locksley R.M. Killeen N. Lenardo M.J. Cell. 2001; 104: 487-501Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2962) Google Scholar). TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 contain a death domain and mediate the apoptotic response toward TRAIL. TRAIL-R3, lacking a cytoplasmic domain, is anchored to the cell surface by modification with glycophospholipids and is regarded as a decoy receptor for TRAIL. TRAIL-R4 has an incomplete cytoplasmic death domain and is therefore incapable of signaling apoptosis but is still able to activate the antiapoptotic NF-κB pathway. Thus, TRAIL-R4 is maybe involved in regulation of the apoptotic TRAIL response at the cellular level. The soluble receptor osteoprotegerin, which otherwise has a critical role in regulation of osteoclastogenesis, may act as a systemic negative regulator of TRAIL-induced apoptosis (1Wang Q. Ji Y. Wang X. Evers B.M. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 276: 466-471Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). TRAIL is involved in the induction of cell death by activated CD4+ T cells (3Thomas W.D. Hersey P. J. Immunol. 1998; 161: 2195-2200PubMed Google Scholar, 4Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Nakayama M. Kawasaki A. Akiba H. Okumura K. Yagita H. J. Immunol. 1999; 162: 2639-2647PubMed Google Scholar), dendritic cells (5Fanger N.A. Maliszewski C.R. Schooley K. Griffith T.S. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 190: 1155-1164Crossref PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar), and NK cells (6Zamai L. Ahmad M. Bennett I.M. Azzoni L. Alnemri E.S. Perussia B. J. Exp. Med. 1998; 188: 2375-2380Crossref PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar). TRAIL may also play a role in activation-induced T cell death during HIV infection (7Katsikis P.D. Garcia-Ojeda M.E. Torres-Roca J.F. Tijoe I.M. Smith C.A. Herzenberg L.A. Herzenberg L.A. J. Exp. Med. 1997; 186: 1365-1372Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 8Jeremias I. Herr I. Boehler T. Debatin K.M. Eur. J. Immunol. 1998; 28: 143-152Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar, 9Miura Y. Misawa N. Maeda N. Inagaki Y. Tanaka Y. Ito M. Kayagaki N. Yamamoto N. Yagita H. Mizusawa H. Koyanagi Y. J. Exp. Med. 2001; 193: 651-660Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). Inhibition of endogenous TRAIL enhances proliferation of autoreactive lymphocytes or synovial cells, thereby contributing to the exacerbation of arthritic inflammation and joint tissue destruction (10Song K. Chen Y. Goke R. Wilmen A. Seidel C. Goke A. Hilliard B. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1095-1104Crossref PubMed Scopus (322) Google Scholar). These data argue for an in vivofunction of TRAIL in the maintenance of immune homeostasis by counteracting autoimmune responses. However, in contrast to FasL, TRAIL inhibits autoimmune inflammation by inhibition of cell cycle progression instead of induction of T cell apoptosis (10Song K. Chen Y. Goke R. Wilmen A. Seidel C. Goke A. Hilliard B. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1095-1104Crossref PubMed Scopus (322) Google Scholar). In accordance with its remarkable tumoricidal activity in vitro, several studies point to a role of TRAIL in anti-tumoral immunity. In this regard, it has been recently shown that TRAIL is the sole principle mediating antitumorigenic activity of interferon-activated human monocytes (11Griffith T.S. Wiley S.R. Kubin M.Z. Sedger L.M. Maliszewski C.R. Fanger N.A. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189: 1343-1354Crossref PubMed Scopus (412) Google Scholar). Moreover, up-regulation of TRAIL plays a central role in IFNγ-mediated antimetastatic effects of interleukin-12 and α-galactosylceramide (12Takeda K. Hayakawa Y. Smyth M.J. Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Kakuta S. Iwakura Y. Yagita H. Okumura K. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 94-100Crossref PubMed Scopus (587) Google Scholar, 13Smyth M.J. Cretney E. Takeda K. Wiltrout R.H. Sedger L.M. Kayagaki N. Yagita H. Okumura K. J. Exp. Med. 2001; 193: 661-670Crossref PubMed Scopus (420) Google Scholar). Further, aside from the capability of dendritic cells to acquire antigen from apoptotic cells to cross-present these antigens to cytotoxic T cells (14Albert M.L. Sauter B. Bhardwaj N. Nature. 1998; 392: 86-89Crossref PubMed Scopus (2024) Google Scholar, 15Albert M.L. Pearce S.F. Francisco L.M. Sauter B. Roy P. Silverstein R.L. Bhardwaj N. J. Exp. Med. 1998; 188: 1359-1368Crossref PubMed Scopus (1059) Google Scholar), dendritic cells directly mediate cellular apoptosis via TRAIL after stimulation with IFNα or IFNγ (5Fanger N.A. Maliszewski C.R. Schooley K. Griffith T.S. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 190: 1155-1164Crossref PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar). Of interest, a recent study indicates that type I IFNs induce the rapid maturation of monocytes into short-lived TRAIL-expressing dendritic cells (16Santini S.M. Lapenta C. Logozzi M. Parlato S. Spada M. Di Pucchio T. Belardelli F. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 191: 1777-1788Crossref PubMed Scopus (546) Google Scholar). Moreover, type I IFNs up-regulate TRAIL expression on anti-CD3-stimulated human peripheral blood T cells suggesting that TRAIL contributes to the indirect cytotoxic activity of type I IFNs used in cancer therapy for the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemias and renal cell carcinomas (17Kayagaki N. Yamaguchi N. Nakayama M. Eto H. Okumura K. Yagita H. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189: 1451-1460Crossref PubMed Scopus (430) Google Scholar). In accordance with an antitumoral function of TRAIL, the death domain-containing TRAIL receptors 1 (18Bartke T. Siegmund D. Peters N. Reichwein M. Henkler F. Scheurich P. Wajant H. Oncogene. 2001; 20: 571-580Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar) and 2 (19Wu G.S. Burns T.F. McDonald III, E.R. Jiang W. Meng R. Krantz I.D. Kao G. Gan D.D. Zhou J.Y. Muschel R. Hamilton S.R. Spinner N.B. Markowitz S. Wu G. El Deiry W.S. Nat. Genet. 1997; 17: 141-143Crossref PubMed Scopus (935) Google Scholar) have been identified as targets of p53. In this study we show that TRAIL is induced by TNF and treatment with phorbol ester under critical involvement of NEMO/IKKγ, an essential component of the NF-κB signaling pathway, may account for some of the apoptotic effects described for NF-κB in the literature (20Beg A.A. Sha W.C. Bronson R.T. Baltimore D. Genes Dev. 1995; 9: 2736-2746Crossref PubMed Scopus (409) Google Scholar, 21Abbadie C. Kabrun N. Bouali F. Smardova J. Stehelin D. Vandenbunder B. Enrietto P.J. Cell. 1993; 75: 899-912Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar, 22Ryan K.M. Ernst M.K. Rice N.R. Vousden K.H. Nature. 2000; 404: 892-897Crossref PubMed Scopus (671) G" @default.
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