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• W1987264313 abstract "Two endogenous timekeeping systems are currently known: the circadian clock and an interval timing clock measuring the passage of time like a stopwatch, which is believed to play a crucial role in natural selection from the ability it provides to anticipate risks and opportunities occurring in the environment.1 Electrophysiological examination and cerebral imaging techniques have shown the importance of the prefrontal cortices in time estimation.2-6 Time estimation of a brief interval reportedly correlates with verbal learning scores thought to be associated with age-related changes in the prefrontal cortex.5 The current study investigated brief time estimation and accuracy in older citizens in a rural Japanese town to see whether they can predict cognitive changes within 3 years. A community-based comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) of elderly adults living in Tosa (Kochi prefecture) was performed yearly from 2004 to 2007. One hundred forty-one individuals aged 72 to 98 (male:female 42:99) who attended the health check every year were included in this investigation. Tests conducted in the supine position consisted of seven 10-second (TE10–1 to TE10–7) and two 60-second estimation trials (TE60–1 and TE60–2). Before the study, subjects were trained by counting aloud from 1 to 10. In 2004, average body mass index was 23.2 kg/m2 (range 15.1–31.7 kg/m2), average Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score was 26.8 (range 14–30), average Hasegawa Dementia Rating Scale–Revised (HDS-R) score was 26.4 (range 9–30), average modified Kohs' block design test score was 18.2 (range 0–47), and average Clock drawing test (CDT) score was 3.9 (range 1–5) (Table 1). Mean TE10–1 ± standard deviation (SD) was 11.4 ± 4.1 seconds, the average of all seven trials (TE10 average) was 11.6 ± 4.4 seconds, and its SD (TE10 SD) was 0.37 ± 0.28 seconds. TE60–1 and TE60–2 were 57.0 ± 19.8 seconds and 54.9 ± 17.1 seconds, respectively. Results for blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, oxygen saturation, cardio–ankle vascular index, ankle–brachial index, and activity of daily living function such as timed Up & Go, functional reach, and button test are shown in Table 1, as are blood chemistry levels. Subjects were subdivided into three groups according to change in MMSE score from 2004 to 2007. A 3-point increase or decrease identified subjects who improved (n = 15) or declined (n = 17) in cognitive function; 104 subjects had changes of less than 3 points in their MMSE score. HDS-R, CDT, and Kana-hiroi test scores were statistically significantly different between the three groups (Table 1). Differences were also found in TE10. Stepwise logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between change in MMSE score within 3 years and the CGA. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed using Stat Flex version 6 (Statflex Institute, Inc., Osaka, Japan). P < .05 was considered statistically significant. TE10 was predictive of improvement in MMSE After 2 Years, the age- and sex-matched OR for TE10–1 being estimated at 1.26 (95% CI = 1.07–1.50, P = .007). Separate age- and sex-matched analyses showed that MMSE score in 2004 (OR=0.85, 95% CI = 0.73–0.99, P = .03), CDT (OR = 0.59, 95% CI = 0.36–0.96, P = .03), and TE10 (OR = 1.19, 95% CI = 1.05–1.34, P = .005) predicted improvement in MMSE within 3 years. Considering all variables concomitantly, MMSE in 2004 (OR = 0.80, 95% CI=0.66–0.96, P = .02), and TE10–1 (OR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.04–1.39, P = .01) remained statistically significant. Other CGA scores were not predictive. Neither TE10 nor TE60 was independently associated with a decline in MMSE within 3 years, whereas CDT (OR = 0.48, 95% CI = 0.26–0.87, P = .02) and body weight (OR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.83–0.99, P = .04) did. This study suggests that short-term time estimation of 10 but not 60 seconds can predict improvement in MMSE score within several years in elderly adults in a rural Japanese town, whereas it has been reported that it may serve as a predictor of age-related cognitive decline.5 The estimation of brief time intervals but not time estimations longer than 30 seconds7 may be related to cognitive function, including working memory.5 Although mood is believed to be an important factor in assessing the subjective passage of time,8 no effect of mood on time estimation was found. Elderly adults who showed cognitive improvement within 3 years overproduced all of the seven TE10 trials, in keeping with other investigations indicating that a longer period of time is necessary for accumulating the number of pulses corresponding to the target duration, because healthy elderly adults usually have fewer resources available for encoding and accumulating pulses.9, 10 Brief time estimation may serve as a predictor of age-related cognitive alteration. We would like to extend our thanks to all participants of this study. Conflict of Interest: The editor in chief has reviewed the conflict of interest checklist provided by the authors and has determined that the authors have no financial or any other kind of personal conflicts with this paper. Author Contributions: Yamanaka (T): data analysis, writing of manuscript. Oinuma, Sasaki, Yamanaka (G): data collection, discussion of data. Otsuka, Cornelissen, Okumiya, Matsubayashi: study design. Sponsor's Role: None." @default.
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• W1987264313 date "2014-05-01" @default.
• W1987264313 modified "2023-10-03" @default.
• W1987264313 title "Time Estimation Predicts Improvement in Cognitive Function in Elderly Community-Dwelling Adults" @default.
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• W1987264313 doi "https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12809" @default.
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