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• W1989429976 abstract "Loop 52–72 of porcine fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase may play a central role in the mechanism of catalysis and allosteric inhibition by AMP. The loop pivots between different conformational states about a hinge located at residues 50 and 51. The insertion of proline separately at positions 50 and 51 reduces kcat by up to 3-fold, with no effect on the Km for fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. The Ka for Mg2+ in the Lys50→ Pro mutant increases ∼15-fold, whereas that for the Ala51 → Pro mutant is unchanged. Although these mutants retain wild-type binding affinity for AMP and the fluorescent AMP analog 2′(3′)-O-(trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5′-monophosphate, the Ki for AMP increases 8000- and 280-fold in the position 50 and 51 mutants, respectively. In fact, the mutation Lys50 → Pro changes the mechanism of AMP inhibition with respect to Mg2+ from competitive to noncompetitive and abolishes K+ activation. The Ki for fructose 2,6-bisphosphate increases ∼20- and 30-fold in the Lys50 → Pro and Ala51 → Pro mutants, respectively. Fluorescence from a tryptophan introduced by the mutation of Tyr57 suggests an altered conformational state for Loop 52–72 due to the proline at position 50. Evidently, the Pro50 mutant binds AMP with high affinity at the allosteric site, but the mechanism of allosteric regulation of catalysis has been disabled. Loop 52–72 of porcine fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase may play a central role in the mechanism of catalysis and allosteric inhibition by AMP. The loop pivots between different conformational states about a hinge located at residues 50 and 51. The insertion of proline separately at positions 50 and 51 reduces kcat by up to 3-fold, with no effect on the Km for fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. The Ka for Mg2+ in the Lys50→ Pro mutant increases ∼15-fold, whereas that for the Ala51 → Pro mutant is unchanged. Although these mutants retain wild-type binding affinity for AMP and the fluorescent AMP analog 2′(3′)-O-(trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5′-monophosphate, the Ki for AMP increases 8000- and 280-fold in the position 50 and 51 mutants, respectively. In fact, the mutation Lys50 → Pro changes the mechanism of AMP inhibition with respect to Mg2+ from competitive to noncompetitive and abolishes K+ activation. The Ki for fructose 2,6-bisphosphate increases ∼20- and 30-fold in the Lys50 → Pro and Ala51 → Pro mutants, respectively. Fluorescence from a tryptophan introduced by the mutation of Tyr57 suggests an altered conformational state for Loop 52–72 due to the proline at position 50. Evidently, the Pro50 mutant binds AMP with high affinity at the allosteric site, but the mechanism of allosteric regulation of catalysis has been disabled. fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 6-P2, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate 6-P2, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate 2′(3′)-O-(trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5′-monophosphate Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (d-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 1- phosphohydrase, EC3.1.3.11; FBPase)1 catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (Fru-1,6-P2) to Fru-6-P and Pi (for a review, see Refs. 1Benkovic S.T. de Maine M.M. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1982; 53: 45-82PubMed Google Scholar, 2Tejwani G.A. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1983; 54: 121-194PubMed Google Scholar, 3Van Schaftingen E. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1987; 59: 45-82Google Scholar). FBPase is a tetramer of identical subunits (Mr = 37,000). Each subunit has binding sites for Fru-1,6-P2, Fru-2,6-P2, and metal ions (which, taken together, define the active site) and a distinct AMP-binding site (4Ke H. Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y. Lipscomb W.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1991; 88: 2989-2993Crossref PubMed Scopus (56) Google Scholar, 5Marcus F. Edelstein I. Reardon I. Heinrikson R.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1982; 79: 7161-7165Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 6Ke H. Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y. Lipscomb W.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1990; 87: 5243-5247Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar). The two binding loci within the same subunit are 28 Å apart, lying for the most part in separate folding domains (called the AMP and Fru-1,6-P2 domains). The four subunits of the tetramer occupy the corners of a rectangle, labeled clockwise C1 through C4, starting with the upper left-hand corner (7Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y Huang S. Lipscomb W.N. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 244: 609-624Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar). FBPase exists in at least two conformational states, called R and T, which differ by a 17o rotation of the C1-C2 subunit pair with respect to the C3-C4 subunit pair about one of three intersecting 2-fold axes of the tetramer (7Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y Huang S. Lipscomb W.N. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 244: 609-624Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar, 8Shyur L.F. Aleshin A.E. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 33301-33307Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar). Loop 52–72 could play an important role in the allosteric mechanism of AMP inhibition, existing in at least two conformational states (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). In the absence of AMP, the loop interacts with the active site (engaged loop conformation), positioning the side chain of an essential catalytic residue, Asp74 (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 11Kurbanov F.T. Choe J.-Y. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17511-17516Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). The binding of AMP to its allosteric pocket putatively displaces the loop from the active site and stabilizes the disengaged loop conformation (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). Subunits with disengaged loops evidently have reduced affinity for essential metal ions and, as a consequence, may be impaired with respect to catalysis. Mutations of conserved residues in Loop 52–72 have significant effects on catalysis and allosteric inhibition of catalysis by AMP (11Kurbanov F.T. Choe J.-Y. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17511-17516Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). The metabolic flux through FBPase is sensitive to prevailing levels of AMP and Fru-2,6-P2. AMP inhibits FBPase allosterically with a Hill coefficient of 2 (12Stone S.R. Fromm H.J. Biochemistry. 1980; 19: 620-625Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar, 13Nimmo H.G. Tipton K.F. Eur. J. Biochem. 1975; 58: 567-574Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar), whereas Fru-2,6-P2inhibits FBPase by direct ligation of the active site with a Hill coefficient of unity (1Benkovic S.T. de Maine M.M. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1982; 53: 45-82PubMed Google Scholar, 2Tejwani G.A. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1983; 54: 121-194PubMed Google Scholar, 3Van Schaftingen E. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1987; 59: 45-82Google Scholar). Inhibition of FBPase by AMP is nonlinear and noncompetitive with respect to Fru-1,6-P2, but nonlinear and competitive with respect to Mg2+ (6Ke H. Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y. Lipscomb W.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1990; 87: 5243-5247Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar, 14Lui F. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1990; 265: 7401-7406Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). In contrast, inhibition of FBPase by Fru-2,6-P2 is linear and competitive with respect to Fru-1,6-P2 and noncompetitive with respect to Mg2+. Due to the equilibrium reaction catalyzed by adenylate kinase, concentrations of AMP in vivoare nearly constant under normal physiological conditions, whereas the concentration of Fru-2,6-P2 varies in response to extracellular regulators such as glucagon and epinephrine. Hence, Fru-2,6-P2 is the probable dynamic regulator of FBPase in vivo, but AMP still plays a significant role. Fru-2,6-P2 lowers the apparent inhibition constant for AMP at least 10-fold (15Pilkis S.J. El-Maghrabi R.M. McGrane M.M. Pilkis J. Claus T.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1981; 256: 3619-3622Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) by decreasing the koff of AMP (16Lui F. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1988; 263: 9122-9128Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Levels of AMP association with the allosteric sites of FBPase will then necessarily change in response to Fru-2,6-P2levels, even if the concentration of AMP in vivo is constant. AMP/Fru-2,6-P2 synergism may arise from the ability of each ligand to stabilize a common thermodynamic state of FBPase (disengaged Loop 52–72) through different mechanisms (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar). For Loop 52–72 to move between its various states, significant conformational change must occur in hinge elements at residues 50 and 51 and residues 71 and 72. The combined mutation of lysines 71 and 72 to methionine dramatically increases the Ki for AMP, presumably due to the stabilization of the R-state over the T-state conformer of FBPase (11Kurbanov F.T. Choe J.-Y. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17511-17516Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). If the loop-mediated mechanism of AMP inhibition is valid, mutations at the second hinge element must qualitatively cause a similar increase in the Ki for AMP, yet mutations of Lys50 to methionine (17Shyur L.F. Poland B.W. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 26295-26299Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar) and glutamine and alanine (18Carcamo J.G. Yanez A.J. Ludwig H.C. Leon O. Pinto R.O. Reyes A.M. Slebe J.C. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 2242-2251Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar) cause virtually no change in the Ki for AMP. What is clear from crystal structures, however, is a large difference in main chain angles (φ, ϕ) at position 50 in the R- and T-states of FBPase (7Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y Huang S. Lipscomb W.N. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 244: 609-624Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar, 9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). Here we explore the consequence of mutations Lys50 → Pro and Ala51 → Pro, which directly influence the backbone conformation of residues 50 and 51. The mutations have little effect on the binding affinity of a fluorescent analog of AMP, but increase the kinetic Ki value for that analog by several orders of magnitude. The kinetic Km value for Fru-1,6-P2 is unchanged by the mutations, but the Ka for Mg2+ rises 15-fold in the case of the Pro50 mutant and is 40-fold less active under standard conditions of assay. The data suggest that Loop 52–72 is an essential element in the allosteric mechanism of FBPase. Fru-1,6-P2, Fru-2,6-P2, NADP+, AMP, ampicillin, and isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside were purchased from Sigma. DNA-modifying and restriction enzymes, T4 polynucleotide kinase, and ligase were from Promega. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and phosphoglucose isomerase came from Roche Molecular Biochemicals. Tryptone, yeast extract, and agar were from Difco. Other chemicals were of reagent grade or equivalent. Escherichia coli strains BMH71-18 mutS and XL1-Blue came from CLONTECH and Stratagene, respectively. FBPase-deficient strain DF657 came from the Genetic Stock Center at Yale University. Mutations were accomplished by specific base changes in double-stranded plasmid using the TransformerTM site-directed mutagenesis kit (CLONTECH). The mutagenic primers for the Lys50 → Pro, Ala51 → Pro, and Tyr57 → Trp mutants were 5′-GTCCGC CCG GCGGGCATC-3′, 5′-CCGCAAG CCG GGCATCGC-3′, and 5′-CGCACCTC TGG GGAATTG3′, respectively (codons for mutation are in boldface and underlined). The selection primer 5′-CAGCCTCGC CTCGAG AACGCCA-3′ (the digestion site is in boldface and underlined) changed an original NruI site on the plasmid into a XhoI site. The mutation and integrity of the gene were confirmed by sequencing the entire gene. The Iowa State University sequencing facility provided DNA sequences using the fluorescent dye dideoxy terminator method. Protein expression and purification were performed as described previously (11Kurbanov F.T. Choe J.-Y. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17511-17516Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar), but with minor alterations. After cell breakage, FBPase was enriched and concentrated by 70% ammonium sulfate fractionation. The precipitate was taken up in 20 mm Tris (pH 7.5) and desalted on a Sephadex G-100 column using 20 mm Tris (pH 7.5). The active fractions were loaded directly onto a Cibacron blue column and eluted with a 0.5–1 m NaCl gradient. FBPase eluted at ∼800 mm NaCl. The eluent was dialyzed against 20 mm Tris-HCl (pH 8.3), loaded onto a DEAE-Sephadex column, and then developed with a 0–300 mmNaCl gradient. FBPase eluted at a salt concentration of 150 mm, and its purity was confirmed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (19Laemmli U.K. Nature. 1970; 227: 680-685Crossref PubMed Scopus (207165) Google Scholar). Protein concentration was determined using the Bradford assay (20Bradford M.M. Anal. Biochem. 1976; 72: 248-252Crossref PubMed Scopus (216202) Google Scholar) with bovine serum albumin as a standard. CD studies on wild-type and mutant FBPases were done at room temperature on a Jasco J710 CD spectrometer in a 1-cm cell using a protein concentration of 0.35 mg/ml. Spectra were collected from 200 to 260 nm in increments of 1.3 nm. Each spectrum was blank-corrected and smoothed using the software package provided with the instrument. Assays for the determination of specific activity, kcat, and activity ratios at pH 7.5 and 9.5 employed the coupling enzymes phosphoglucose isomerase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (1Benkovic S.T. de Maine M.M. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1982; 53: 45-82PubMed Google Scholar). The reduction of NADP+ to NADPH was monitored directly at 340 nm. All other assays employed the same coupling enzymes, but monitored NADPH evolution by its fluorescence emission at 470 nm (excitation wavelength of 340 nm). Initial rate data were analyzed using either programs written in the MINITAB language using an α value of 2.0 (14Lui F. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1990; 265: 7401-7406Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) or ENZFITTER (21Leatherbarrow R.J. ENZFITTER: A Non-Linear Regression Data Analysis Program for the IBM PC. Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam1987: 13-75Google Scholar). The kinetic data were fit to a variety of models. Only models and parameters for the best fits are reported below. Fluorescence data were collected using an SLM 8100C fluorometer (Spectronic Instruments). The single tryptophan in the Trp57 mutant was excited selectively using radiation of 295-nm wavelength. Fluorescence emission spectra were recorded in steps of 1 nm from 310 to 400 nm using a slit width of 2 mm for both excitation and emission. Each spectrum was an average of five scans. Fluorescence from TNP-AMP employed excitation and emission wavelengths of 400 and 535 nm, respectively. Conditions under which specific spectra were recorded are provided below and in the tables and figure legends. Each point is the average of 15 1-s acquisitions. Enzyme concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 μm. All spectra were corrected for dilution and inner filter effects (absorbance of light by AMP and TNP-AMP) using Equation1 (22Lakowicz J.R. Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York1999: 52-54Google Scholar), Fc=(F−B)(Vi/V0)10(Aex+Aem)/2Equation 1 where Fc is the corrected fluorescence,F is the fluorescence intensity experimentally measured,B is the background, Vi is the volume of the sample for a specific titration point, V0 is the initial volume of the sample, Aex is the absorbance measured at the wavelength of excitation (295 nm for AMP and 410 nm for TNP-AMP), and Aem is the absorbance measured at the wavelength of emission (535 nm for TNP-AMP). As a control, ligands by themselves caused no change in fluorescence emission from a solution of tryptophan (100 μm). TNP-AMP titration data were analyzed by nonlinear least-squares fits using Equation 2, ΔFFo=(ΔFmax/F0)·LnKd+LnEquation 2 where ΔF is the change in fluorescence caused by the addition of ligand (L), F0 is the fluorescence in the absence of ligand, ΔFmaxis the theoretical maximum change in fluorescence at saturating ligand concentration, Kd is the dissociation constant, and n is the Hill coefficient. The starting model for the engaged conformation of Loop 52–72 is the crystal structure of the Zn2+·product complex of FBPase (PDB accession code 1CNQ), in which the tetramer assumes the R-state conformation (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar). The starting model for the disengaged conformation of Loop 52–72 is a Zn2+·product·AMP complex of FBPase, in which the tetramer has the T-state conformation (10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). The latter structure is similar to other T-state structures of FBPase (7Zhang Y. Liang J.-Y Huang S. Lipscomb W.N. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 244: 609-624Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar, 23Xue Y. Huang S. Liang J.-Y Lipscomb W.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 12482-12486Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar), differing primarily in the ligands present at the active site. Proline residues were placed individually at positions 50 and 51 using the software XTALVIEW and a Silicon Graphics workstation. The initial models were passed through three protocols: 1) 100 cycles of conjugate gradient minimization; 2) 100 cycles of conjugate gradient minimization, followed by simulated annealing (starting temperature, 500 K; final temperature, 300 K) (24Brünger A.T. XPLOR , Version 3.1. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT1992Google Scholar) and then another 100 cycles of conjugate gradient minimization; and 3) the same procedure as Protocol 2, but using a starting temperature of 1000 K. During simulated annealing and energy minimization, the Cα atoms (except for residues 50–72) were restrained to their initial crystallographic positions by a harmonic pseudo-potential with a force constant of 50 kcal/mol. The justification for restraining all Cα atoms outside of the loop is the 10-year history of FBPase crystal structures, which collectively reveal only small changes in the protein conformation outside of Loop 52–72. A structural overview of the region of interest is provided in Fig. 1. The main chain φ angle of Lys50 differs significantly in the T- and R-states, neither value being compatible with that of proline, where φ must be close to −60°. Insertion of proline then results in an initial model with poor stereochemistry at position 50. Energy minimization alone and energy minimization with simulated annealing at a starting temperature of 500 K (Protocols 1 and 2 in “Experimental Procedures”) leave the φ angle of Pro50some 30° away from its preferred value in both the T- and R-states. Further improvement in the stereochemistry of Pro50requires a starting temperature of 1000 K in simulated annealing (Protocol 3), the consequence of which is a significant drift of the Loop 52–72 away from either its T- or R-state conformation. Evidently, proline at position 50 is incompatible with the T-state disengaged and R-state engaged loop conformations. Proline at position 51, on the other hand, is less disruptive. The φ angle of residue 51 is near −60° in both the R- and T-states of FBPase. Backbone amide 51 hydrogen bonds with backbone carbonyls 47 and 48 in the R-state and with backbone carbonyl 46 in the T-state. Proline substitution at position 51 clearly disrupts the hydrogen bonds in both the R- and T-states. Moreover, the Cδatom of proline makes close contacts of 1.9 and 1.8 Å with backbone carbonyls 48 (R-state) and 46 (T-state), respectively. Either energy minimization alone or energy minimization with simulated annealing (initial temperature, 500 K) relaxes the contact in the R-state (the loop remains engaged with the active site) by a 90° rotation of the plane of the polypeptide linkage between residues 47 and 48. The close contact of the T-state remains, however, at 2.4 and 2.8 Å after modeling Protocols 1 and 2, respectively. Contacts from within the subunit and from the neighboring subunit constrain the T-state conformation of residues 52–57 (Fig. 1). Furthermore, as backbone carbonyl 46 is an integral part of helix H2, it cannot relieve its close contact with Pro51 by a rotation of its polypeptide linkage. Hence, proline at position 51 probably increases the internal energy of the T-state, destabilizing it relative to the R-state of FBPase. Mutant and wild-type FBPases behaved identically throughout purification, including gel exclusion chromatography. The wild-type and mutant enzymes were at least 95% pure with no evidence for proteolysis on the basis of SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The CD spectra of wild-type FBPase in the T- and R-states diverge minimally, but reproducibly in the vicinity of 210 nm (17Shyur L.F. Poland B.W. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 26295-26299Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar). The CD spectra of the Ala51→ Pro, Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp, and wild-type FBPases superimpose in the presence of Pi (5 mm), Fru-6-P (5 mm), and saturating Mg2+ (5 mm for the wild-type and Ala51 → Pro enzymes and 35 mm for Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp). The addition of AMP (200 μm) to the wild-type enzyme produced small changes in the CD spectrum near 210 nm, as noted above, but caused no change in the CD spectra of the Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp and Ala51 → Pro enzymes. (Concentrations of AMP in excess of 200 μm degraded CD spectra due to the elevated absorbance of radiation.) The CD spectra of the Lys50 → Pro mutant also differ from the corresponding wild-type spectra (Fig. 2). The CD spectrum of the Lys50 → Pro mutant did not change in the presence of Pi (5 mm), Fru-6-P (5 mm), and saturating Mg2+ (50 mm) in the presence or absence of AMP (200 μm). Initial rate kinetics employ maximal substrate concentrations, sufficient to saturate the active site, but low enough to avoid substrate inhibition. The ratios of catalytic rate constants at pH 7.5 and 9.6 are comparable for wild-type and Ala51 → Pro FBPases (TableI), both consistent with reported activity ratios for an FBPase free of proteolysis. The activity ratios for the Lys50 → Pro and Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp mutants are low, however; but as discussed below, the low value does not stem from limited proteolysis of that mutant.Table IKinetic parameters for wild-type and mutant forms of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase7.5/9.5 ratioSpecific activity1-aSpecific activity was determined at 5 mm Mg2+ and 20 μmFru-1,6-P2.kcat1-bkcat is defined as Vmax/ET , where ET is the total enzyme concentration.Km for Fru-1,6-P2Ka for Mg2+Hill for Mg2+Ki for Fru-2,6-P2IC50 for AMP1-cThe Hill coefficient for AMP ligation of high affinity sites is 2. See “Results” for details.K+activation1-dK+ activation is the percent increase in Vmax using 150 mmKCl versus 0 mm KCl at saturating Mg2+and Fru-1,6-P2.units/mg/ss −1μmmm 2μmμm%Wild-type3.335 ± 222 ± 11.75 ± 0.090.67 ± 0.041.9 ± 0.10.123 ± 0.0051.61 ± 0.0516.8 ± 0.3Lys50 → Pro0.930.85 ± 0.066.7 ± 0.32.1 ± 0.210.7 ± 0.81.45 ± 0.082.3 ± 0.213400 ± 20−4.32 ± 0.04Ala51 → Pro3.220 ± 112.4 ± 0.72.5 ± 0.20.8 ± 0.12.1 ± 0.23.4 ± 0.2460 ± 715.9 ± 0.1Tyr57 → Trp1-eData are from Ref. 25.3.338.6 ± 0.124.0 ± 0.13.39 ± 0.090.53 ± 0.061.9 ± 0.10.84 ± 0.058.5 ± 0.416.6 ± 0.4Lys50 → Pro/ Tyr57 → Trp1.98.7 ± 0.89.2 ± 0.51.3 ± 0.13.1 ± 0.21.80 ± 0.070.37 ± 0.03650 ± 401-fThe reported value is for the high affinity site (IC50-high). IC50-low is 28 ± 6 mm with a Hill coefficient of 1.4. See “Results” for details.14.6 ± 0.11-a Specific activity was determined at 5 mm Mg2+ and 20 μmFru-1,6-P2.1-b kcat is defined as Vmax/ET , where ET is the total enzyme concentration.1-c The Hill coefficient for AMP ligation of high affinity sites is 2. See “Results” for details.1-d K+ activation is the percent increase in Vmax using 150 mmKCl versus 0 mm KCl at saturating Mg2+and Fru-1,6-P2.1-e Data are from Ref. 25Nelson, S. W., Iancu, C. V., Choe, J.-Y., Honzatko, R. B., and Fromm, H. J. (2000) Biochemistry, in pressGoogle Scholar.1-f The reported value is for the high affinity site (IC50-high). IC50-low is 28 ± 6 mm with a Hill coefficient of 1.4. See “Results” for details. Open table in a new tab All enzymes have comparable Km values for Fru-1,6-P2 (Table I); but beyond this, the quantitative similarities end. Under standard conditions of assay for the wild-type enzyme (5 mm Mg2+ and 20 μmFru-1,6-P2, pH 7.5), the mutation of Lys50 to proline resulted in a 40-fold loss of specific activity. However, the decline in specific activity was due primarily to a 15-fold increase in the Ka for Mg2+ for the Pro50 mutant. The kcat value for the Pro50 mutant (saturated with Mg2+) is one-third of that for the wild-type enzyme. The Hill coefficients for Mg2+ for the Ala51 → Pro, Lys50→ Pro/Tyr57 → Trp, and wild-type enzymes are similar, but are reduced significantly in the Lys50 → Pro mutant. Potassium ion activation is retained in the Ala51 → Pro and Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp mutants at levels comparable to that of the wild-type enzyme, but is abolished altogether in the Pro50 mutant. Concentrations of AMP needed for 50% inhibition increased 280-, 8000-, and 400-fold relative to that of the wild-type enzyme for the Ala51 → Pro, Lys50 → Pro, and Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp mutants, respectively (Fig.3 and Table I). Additionally, the Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp double mutant displays biphasic behavior toward AMP. The data of Fig. 3 for the wild-type, Ala51 → Pro, and Lys50 → Pro enzymes were fit to Equation 3, v=V01+IIC502Equation 3 where v is the observed velocity at a specific concentration of AMP, V0 is the fitted velocity in the absence of AMP, I is the concentration of AMP, and IC50 is the concentration of AMP that causes 50% inhibition. The exponent of 2 represents the Hill coefficient for AMP cooperativity, determined independently as described below. The data of Fig. 3 for Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp FBPase were fit to Equation 4, v=V01+IIC50­high2+IIC50­lownEquation 4 where v, V0, and I are as defined above for Equation 3 and IC50-high and IC50-low represent concentrations of AMP that cause 50% relative inhibition due to the ligation of high and low affinity sites, respectively. Ligation of the high affinity sites, as shown below, is cooperative with a Hill coefficient of 2, whereas the cooperativity with respect to the ligation of low affinity sites is an adjustable parameter (n) in Equation 4. The fitted value for n is 1.4. AMP inhibition of wild-type FBPase is nonlinear and noncompetitive with respect to Fru-1,6-P2 and nonlinear and competitive with respect to Mg2+. The Ala51 → Pro mutant retains the nonlinear, competitive relationship between AMP and Mg2+ (goodness-of-fit, 5.5%) (Fig.4), consistent with Equation 5, 1v=1Vm1+KaA21+InKiEquation 5 where v, Vm , A, I,Ka , Ki , and nrepresent initial velocity, maximal velocity, Mg2+concentration, AMP concentration, the Michaelis constant for Mg2+, the dissociation constant for AMP from the enzyme·AMP complex, and the Hill coefficient for AMP, respectively. The binding of AMP is cooperative at n = 2, whereas cooperativity is absent when n = 1. Data from the wild-type and Ala51 → Pro enzymes are consistent with n = 2 (AMP cooperativity). When assayed at low AMP concentrations, Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp retains the competitive mechanism with n = 2. In contrast, AMP inhibition of the Lys50 → Pro mutant fits best to a mechanism of noncompetitive inhibition with respect to Mg2+ (goodness-of-fit, 3.1%) (Fig. 4), represented by Equation 6, 1v=1Vm1+1nKii+KaA1+InKiEquation 6 where the terms of Equation 6 are defined as for Equation 5 and Kii represents the dissociation constant for AMP from the enzyme·Mg2+·AMP complex. The data are consistent with n = 2, reflecting AMP cooperativity. In wild-type, Ala51 → Pro, and Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp FBPases, the mechanism of AMP inhibition with respect to Fru-1,6-P2 is nonlinear and noncompetitive (Equation 7), 1v=1Vm1+InKii+KbB1+InKiEquation 7 where v, Vm , I, and n are as defined above, Ki and Kii represent the dissociation constants for AMP from the enzyme·AMP and the enzyme·Fru-1,6-P2·AMP complexes, respectively, B is the concentration of Fru-1,6-P2, and Kb is the Michaelis constant for Fru-1,6-P2. The high value for IC50 associated with AMP inhibition of the Lys50 → Pro mutant (Table I) precludes the determination of a kinetic mechanism. Fru-2,6-P2 is a competitive inhibitor with respect to Fru-1,6-P2 for the position 50 and 51 mutant FBPases. The data best fit to Equation 8 (goodness-of-fit, 4.0%), 1v=1Vm1+KbB1+IKiEquation 8 where v, Vm , I, B,Ki , and Kb are as defined above. The kinetic mechanism of Fru-2,6-P2 inhibition is the same for mutant and wild-type FBPases, but the Ki for Fru-2,6-P2 is ∼20-, 30-, and 3-fold higher in the Lys50 → Pro, Ala51 → Pro, and Lys50 → Pro/Tyr57 → Trp mutants, respectively, relative to the wild-type enzyme (Table I). AMP and Fru-2,6-P2 synergistically inhibited wild-type and mutant FBPases (Fig. 5). For all enzymes, the Hill coefficient for AMP is 2. At high concentrations of Fru-2,6-P2, the saturation curve for Fru-1,6-P2changes from hyperbolic to sigmoidal for mutant and wild-type enzymes. TNP-AMP inhibited the wild-type enzyme competitively with respect to Mg2+ and inhibited FBPase synergistically with Fru-2,6-P2. Fluorescence emission from TNP-AMP increased significantly in the presence of FBPase. In addition, AMP reduced the fluorescence from bound TNP-AMP, presumably through competition for the allosteric effector site (data not shown). TNP-AMP bound to wild-type, Lys50 → Pro, and Ala51 → Pro FBPases with high affinity, comparable to AMP. On the basis of fluorescence titration data (Table II), however, the Hill coefficient for TNP-AMP is near unity in all cases.Table IIInhibition and binding constants for TNP-AMP for wild-type and mutant forms of fructose-1,6-bisphosphataseIC50 for TNP-AMPKd for TNP-AMPμmμmWild-type7.4 ± 0.713.1 ± 0.6Lys50 → ProND2-aNot determined due to weak inhibition by TNP-AMP.14 ± 4Ala51 → ProND37 ± 22-a Not determined due to weak inhibition by TNP-AMP. Open table in a new tab FBPase has no tryptophan, so the mutation of any single residue to tryptophan introduces a unique fluorophore. Fluorescence emission from tryptophan at position 57 is sensitive to the conformational state of Loop 52–72. The indole of Trp57 is exposed to solvent in the T-state disengaged loop conformation, whereas it resides in a hydrophobic pocket in the R-state engaged loop conformation. The Tyr57 → Trp mutant has been thoroughly studied by x-ray crystallography and initial velocity kinetics (25Nelson, S. W., Iancu, C. V., Choe, J.-Y., Honzatko, R. B., and Fromm, H. J. (2000) Biochemistry, in pressGoogle Scholar). Fluorescence emission spectra from the Pro50/Trp57 double mutant differ significantly from those of the Trp57 single mutant (Fig. 6). Fluorescence emission from the single Trp57 mutant is maximum in the presence of products/metals, conditions that promote the R-state engaged loop conformation (9Choe J.-Y. Poland B.W. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 1998; 33: 11441-11450Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar, 10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). The addition of AMP reduced fluorescence emission to a level comparable to that observed from the Trp57mutant in the absence of products and metals (apo form of FBPase). In contrast, the apo form of the Pro50/Trp57double mutant has the highest fluorescence emission. The addition of either product/metals or product/metals/AMP caused only a decrease in fluorescence emission. Low activity ratios (∼0.3) are a property of wild-type FBPase after limited proteolysis by papain or subtilisin (26Horecker B.L. Melloni E. Pontremoli S. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1975; 42: 193-226PubMed Google Scholar). The maximum effect on the activity ratio due to proteolysis occurs when one subunit per tetramer is cut. Thus, for the wild-type enzyme, an activity ratio of 1, as observed for the Lys50 → Pro mutant, requires an equal mixture of intact and once-proteolyzed tetramers. Proteolysis of one of eight subunits then could account for a diminished activity ratio in any FBPase. In SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the Lys50 → Pro mutant, however, no fragments typical of proteolysis were evident. Furthermore, loss of AMP inhibition due to proteolysis of wild-type FBPase varied proportionately with the extent of subunit cleavage. The 8000-fold increase in Ki for AMP far exceeds the effect on AMP inhibition due to proteolysis, even in a completely proteolyzed system. Hence, the kinetic properties of the Lys50 → Pro mutant are not the consequence of proteolysis, but rather the influence of a proline at position 50. Allosteric inhibition of wild-type FBPase by TNP-AMP is essentially identical to that caused by AMP, the only difference being the absence of cooperativity in the kinetics and in the binding of the fluorescent analog. In fact, TNP-AMP is indistinguishable from formycin 5′-monophosphate in its inhibition and binding to wild-type FBPase. Formycin 5′-monophosphate also exhibits a Hill coefficient of unity (27Scheffler J.E. Fromm H.J. Biochemistry. 1986; 25: 6659-6665Crossref PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar), and crystal structures of complexes of formycin 5′-monophosphate and AMP with human FBPase are identical (28Iverson L.F. Brzozowski M. Hastrup S. Hubbard R. Kastup J.S. Larsen I.K. Naerum L. Norsko-Lauridsen L. Rasmussen P.B. Thim L. Wiberg F.C. Lundgren K. Protein Sci. 1997; 6: 971-982Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar). The difference in Hill coefficient may stem from subtle differences in conformation, evident perhaps only in partially ligated states of FBPase. Nonetheless, the fluorescence data clearly demonstrate tight binding of TNP-AMP and the displacement of that analog from FBPase by the addition of AMP. Hence, wild-type and Pro50 mutant FBPases are indistinguishable in their binding of TNP-AMP and its displacement by AMP. On the basis of kinetics, however, Pro50 mutant FBPase is altogether insensitive to AMP. Inhibition of the Pro50mutant by AMP requires an 8000-fold increase in ligand concentration and exhibits a different kinetic mechanism (noncompetitive versus competitive with respect to Mg2+). The apparent change in kinetic mechanism may arise from the unmasking of a secondary mechanism, due to the complete loss of allosteric inhibition by AMP. That secondary mechanism may be the direct coordination of AMP to the metal-ligated active site of Pro50 mutant FBPase. Hence, if AMP binds tightly to the Pro50 mutant, as evidenced by the fluorescence data, but does not inhibit, then proline at position 50 must interrupt the transmission of the allosteric signal. Kinetic data indicate the disruption of Loop 52–72 as the root cause for the loss of allosteric properties in Pro50 mutant FBPase. The Ka for Mg2+ is elevated 15-fold in the Pro50 mutant, and K+ activation is lost. The kinetic mechanism of AMP inhibition with respect to Mg2+ is competitive in wild-type FBPase. Hence, in wild-type FBPase, AMP elevates the apparent dissociation constant of metals. A greatly elevated Ka for Mg2+, accompanied by the complete loss of AMP inhibition, is consistent with an FBPase unable to achieve its high affinity state for metal cations. On the basis of recent crystal structures (10Choe J.-Y. Fromm H.J. Honzatko R.B. Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8565-8574Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar), the R-state engaged conformation of Loop 52–72 represents the high affinity state for metal cations and the catalytically productive state of FBPase. Pro50 mutant FBPase then cannot achieve a engaged loop conformation. Molecular modeling, CD spectroscopy, and fluorescence emission from Trp57 strengthen the argument above. The mutation of Lys50 to proline destabilizes the R-state engaged loop and T-state disengaged loop conformations in slow cooling/energy minimization protocols. The CD spectrum of Pro50 mutant FBPase supports an altered state, conformationally unresponsive to the binding of ligands. The indole group of Trp57 in the Pro50/Trp57 double mutant does not enter its hydrophobic pocket, as evidenced by the low fluorescence emission in the presence of saturating products/metals. The several lines of evidence provided here suggest that Loop 52–72 in Pro50mutant FBPase can achieve neither its T-state disengaged nor its R-state engaged loop conformation. The complete loss of allosteric inhibition in Pro50 mutant FBPase suggests furthermore, that Loop 52–72 is an essential element in the allosteric regulation of FBPase. The effects of the Ala51 → Pro mutation are less dramatic, in harmony with the results of modeling and CD spectroscopy. The Pro51 mutant retains K+ activation and wild-type affinity for divalent cations, but exhibits a significant increase in the Ki for AMP. The mutation evidently destabilizes the T-state disengaged conformation of Loop 52–72 relative to the R-state engaged conformation, again consistent with the results of modeling. In this respect, the Pro51 mutant and the Met71/72 double mutant (11Kurbanov F.T. Choe J.-Y. Honzatko R.B. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17511-17516Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar) have similar effects on FBPase function. In both instances, lessened AMP inhibition probably arises from a perturbation in the equilibrium between engaged and disengaged loop conformations in favor of the engaged state. The Ki for Fru-2,6-P2 increases 20- and 30-fold in the Lys50 → Pro and Ala51 → Pro mutants, respectively. The change in binding affinity for Fru-2,6-P2 in these mutants must be indirect and is most likely through a perturbation of conformation states accessible to Loop 52–72. The increase in Ki for Fru-2,6-P2 due to loop mutations does not come with an increase in the Km for Fru-1,6-P2, as has been observed in other mutations that increase the Ki for Fru-2,6-P2 (29Shyur L.F. Zhang R. Fromm H.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 123-127Google Scholar). The observation above is consistent with findings that suggest that Fru-2,6-P2 and Fru-1,6-P2, although binding at the same site, evoke different conformational responses from FBPase. For instance, at high concentrations of Fru-2,6-P2, the Hill coefficient for AMP inhibition changes from 2 to 1, and the saturation curve for Fru-1,6-P2 changes from hyperbolic to sigmoidal (3Van Schaftingen E. Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol. 1987; 59: 45-82Google Scholar, 30Schaftingen E.V. Hers H.-G. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1981; 78: 2861-2863Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar). At low concentrations of Fru-2,6-P2, the Hill coefficient for Mg2+ changes from 2 to 1 (31Pilkis S.J. El-Maghrabi R.M. McGrane M.M. Pilkis J. Claus T.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1981; 256: 11489-11495Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Finally, Fru-2,6-P2 protects FBPase from loss of AMP inhibition and catalytic activity due to modification by acetylimidazole, whereas Fru-1,6-P2 protects only against loss of activity (31Pilkis S.J. El-Maghrabi R.M. McGrane M.M. Pilkis J. Claus T.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1981; 256: 11489-11495Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Although a complete understanding of the above phenomena will come with further study, mutations of the loop underscore a fundamental difference in FBPase in its Fru-2,6-P2- and Fru-1,6-P2-ligated states. We thank Xiaofeng Liu for technical assistance in the preparation of the Pro50 /Trp57 double mutant plasmid." @default.
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• W1989429976 title "Mutations in the Hinge of a Dynamic Loop Broadly Influence Functional Properties of Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase" @default.
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