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• W1997966277 abstract "[1] Volcanic arcs are curved chains of volcanoes generally convex toward an oceanic basin and separated from it by a deep submarine trench. They mark convergent plate boundaries and are the surface expression of magmatic systems that develop as a result of the subduction of oceanic lithosphere. Volcanic arcs can take the form of intraoceanic arcs, “transitional” or island arcs, and continental arcs. Those that have a submarine component (n = 21) [de Ronde et al., 2003] include both intraoceanic and island arcs. Combined, they have a total length of almost 22,000 km with ∼93% located in the Pacific region [de Ronde et al., 2003]. [2] Intraoceanic arcs have oceanic crust on either side, in which case the volcanoes are mainly submarine. They total about 6900 km worldwide [de Ronde et al., 2003]. The two most contiguous intraoceanic arcs are the Tonga-Kermadec and Izu-Bonin/Mariana arcs, which each strike for about 2500 km. These two arcs represent the best examples of submarine manifestation of the so-called “subduction factory” [Stern et al., 2003; Tatsumi and Kogiso, 2003]. Each is the direct result of westward subduction of the Pacific Plate with concomitant formation of volcanoes the surface expression of large-scale heat loss from the mantle. Submarine arc volcanism represents the second most common type of seafloor volcanic activity on present-day Earth after crustal accretion along the mid-ocean ridge (MOR) and back-arc basins [e.g., Tamura and Wysoczanski, 2006]. Submarine arc volcanism differs from other types of seafloor volcanism in several important aspects, including: (1) depth to the volcano summits which are, on average, much shallower (commonly <500 m and almost always <2000 m) than the abyssal MOR (almost always >2000 m), (2) magmas with higher contents of water and other volatiles compared to MORB; and (3) a much greater range of magma compositions exist along arcs, from basalt through to rhyolite. The relatively shallow depths and high magmatic volatile contents of these volcanoes are manifested by more explosive volcanic systems and more gas-rich hydrothermal systems, which also provide an intriguing context for chemosynthetic biological systems [e.g., Higashi et al., 2004; Takano et al., 2005]. [3] The first regional studies of submarine arc volcanoes were seafloor sampling surveys conducted on Izu-Bonin volcanoes by the Geological Survey of Japan in the 1980s [Nakao et al., 1990]. These initial studies, when combined with later expeditions ultilizing the submersibles (Alvin and Shinaki 2000), resulted in the discovery of several active hydrothermal systems along the Izu-Bonin arc [Ishibashi and Urabe, 1995; Glasby et al., 2000], including the first high-temperature arc systems on Suiyo Seamount [Tsunogai et al., 1994] and Myojin Knoll [Iizasa et al., 1999]. Regional dredging surveys were also done along the Mariana arc around the same time [Bloomer et al., 1989], with active hydrothermal systems discovered by submersibles [McMurtry et al., 1993; Fryer et al., 1997] and towed camera systems [Stüben et al., 1992] on several submarine volcanoes. [4] Systematic water column, in particular, and mapping surveys of other submarine arcs began in the late 1990s. Following some initial discoveries of hydrothermal systems in 1998 along the Kermadec arc [Wright et al., 1998; Haase et al., 2002; de Ronde et al., 2005a] (Figure 1), the NZAPLUME (New Zealand American Plume Mapping Expedition) cruise of 1999 made the first methodical and systematic survey of a significant length segment of volcanic arc for hydrothermal plumes using a continuous hydrographic, optical, and chemical profiling system, and the collection of numerous discrete water samples [de Ronde et al., 2001]. This was followed by additional seafloor and plume mapping cruises in 2002 (NZAPLUME II) [Wright et al., 2006; de Ronde et al., 2007] and 2004 (NZAPLUME III) that surveyed the middle and northern parts of the Kermadec arc, northward into the Tonga (Tofua) arc. Manned submersible surveys followed in 2004 (Shinkai6500) and 2005 (Pisces V) on select volcanoes to map in detail hydrothermal vent fields, and to sample massive sulfide chimneys, vent-related animals, and vent fluids [de Ronde et al., 2005b; Embley et al., 2005]. The TELVE cruise of 2003 similarly mapped hydrothermal plumes of the southern and middle parts of the Tonga arc [Massoth et al., 2007] and back-arc [Baker et al., 2005], again followed by a manned submersible survey (Pisces IV and V) in 2005 [Stoffers et al., 2006], and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) survey by ROPOS in 2007 on select volcanoes [Schwarz-Schampera et al., 2007] to collect mineralized samples and vent fluids. [5] In the meantime, similar surveys for hydrothermal emissions were being done along the Mariana arc (Figure 1). In 2003, the first of the “Submarine Ring of Fire” expeditions was conducted along the Mariana arc, swath mapping the volcanoes and conducting numerous water column CTDO (conductivity-temperature-depth-optical) surveys similar to those done along the Kermadec arc, with the aim of locating and characterizing hydrothermal emissions for the first time [Embley et al., 2004; Embley et al., 2007]. This initial cruise was followed by ROV (ROPOS, Hyper-Dolphin, and Jason II) cruises in 2004, 2005, and 2006 that sampled in detail the rocks, minerals (chimneys), animals, and vent fluids of hydrothermal systems discovered during the plume mapping survey [Embley et al., 2006; Lupton et al., 2006; Embley et al., 2007]. It is the results from expeditions to the Mariana and Kermadec arcs, in addition to ongoing studies of the Izu-Bonin arc, that largely make up the contributions to this special issue. [6] Exploratory multibeam mapping, and to a lesser degree hydrothermal emission surveys, were also been completed along the northern part of the Tonga arc during the 2004 NoVOTE cruise [Arculus, 2004]. In addition, the Tabar-Lihir-Tanga-Feni [McInnes et al., 2000; de Ronde et al., 2003], New Hebrides and San Cristobal (an E-W trending arc in the far Eastern Solomon Islands) arcs have been surveyed in part by the Australian CSIRO during several expeditions between 2000 and 2002 [McConachy et al., 2001; McConachy and McInnes, 2001; McConachy et al., 2002]. The Bismarck volcanic arc north of New Britain was similarly investigated using single beam and multibeam mapping and limited hydrothermal emission surveys by the CSIRO (R/V Franklin-FR02–2002, Bismarck 2002 cruise), KORDI (R/V Onnuri, DaeYang02 cruise), the University of Hawaii (R/V Kilo Moana-KM04–19 cruise), and by ANU (R/V Southern Surveyor-SS2007–07, WeBiVE 2007 cruise) between 2002 and 2007 [Binns et al., 2002; McConachy, 2002; Silver et al., 2005; Arculus and Yeats, 2004]. Most of these arcs have yet to be surveyed in detail for their hydrothermal emissions. [7] All the above cruises, but especially those to the Kermadec and Izu-Bonin-Mariana arcs, have provided us with an opportunity to study first-hand, and for the first time, magmatic-hydrothermal processes that occur along submarine volcanic arcs. Our ability to first delineate at a regional scale the magnitude and frequency of venting along an arc, is then matched by the application of state-of-the-art sampling tools, such as manned submersibles and ROVs. This has enabled us to view up close some spectacular processes associated with these hydrothermally active submarine volcanoes. Because of the unique tectonic setting of these volcanoes, and their concomitant range in depth below sea level and rock compositions, never or rarely seen before processes have been documented. These include the spectacular and explosive eruption of a basaltic-andesitic lava on the seafloor [Embley et al., 2006], venting of liquid CO2 [Lupton et al., 2006] and the discovery of ponds of liquid sulfur [Nakamura et al., 2006; Embley et al., 2007]. At the same time, an intensive interdisciplinary study was being conducted at Suiyo Seamount on the Izu-Bonin arc (Figure 1). The multiyear investigation of the Suiyo Seamount hydrothermal system (Achaean Park Project) pioneered shallow drilling to investigate relationships between the shallow subsurface biosphere and the surrounding geochemical environment [Marumo et al., 2008; Urabe et al., 2001; Ishibashi et al., 2007]. [8] This special issue on “Active Magmatic, Tectonic, and Hydrothermal Processes at Intraoceanic Arc Submarine Volcanoes” brings together a collection of papers that examine various aspects on the geology, geochemistry, and biology of these arc systems, focused primarily, though not exclusively, on the Kermadec and Mariana arcs. The first five papers all focus on the submarine volcanoes of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc. Graham et al. [2008] detail the morphology and petrology of the eight volcanic centers that make up the northernmost part of the Kermadec arc, including the southernmost centers of the Tonga arc. All the centers are host to both calderas and cones and have rock compositions that range from basalt through to rhyolite. However, in contrast to the southern part of the Kermadec arc, where there is clear evidence for basalt/dacite bimodality, volcanic centers of the northern Kermadec arc tend to have a more homogenous distribution of rock types. Next are two papers that deal with specific volcanic centers. The first is a study by Wright et al. [2008] on the collapse and regrowth of the Monowai summit cone as part of the Monowai volcanic center (Figure 1). These workers combine detailed swath mapping of the summit area with seismic (T wave) data to show that Monowai has been continuously volcanically active since at least 1998, and that there has been large-scale collapse of the cone, only to be rebuilt by volcanic activity a few years later. The focus of the paper by Dziak et al. [2008] is farther south, where they report on the results of a 7-month-long ocean bottom hydrophone experiment at Brothers volcano (Figure 1). They show how over that period there has been significant seismic activity with the majority of T wave derived locations for 964 regional earthquakes clustering beneath a dacite cone located in the southern part of the caldera, near the eastern flank of the volcano. One of the most striking results of this study is the pervasive tremor signal that the authors suggest is generated from a large zone of gas-rich, hydrothermal fluid-filled conduits and cavities within the shallow crust beneath the dacite cone, itself host to a gas-rich, diffuse hydrothermal system. [9] The last two papers that make up the Kermadec arc collection relate to fossilized filamentous microbes contained in silica-rich chimneys found at Giggenbach volcano [Jones et al., 2008] (Figure 1), and microbes collected from the active vents sites of Brothers volcano [Stott et al., 2008]. The former show that the preserved microbes are remarkably similar to those found in sinters associated with subaerial hot springs. Thus, interpretation of the depositional setting cannot be based solely on the silicified microbes or their style of silicification, suggesting caution when trying to interpret the geologic record (rocks). Stott et al. [2008] have investigated the microbial diversity of a bacterial mat at a vent orifice at the Brothers cone site, using noncultivation techniques (SSU rRNA gene surveys). Their environmental survey showed an unusual microbial community consisting of a large number of previously undescribed bacterial and archaeal phylotypes with unknown metabolic function and therefore ecological roles. These workers argue that vent fluid chemistry probably plays an important role in the genetic composition of this community. [10] The paper by Keller et al. [2008] details the results of recent swath mapping and geochemical results of rocks collected from the Fonualei Rifts (Figure 1), a nascent spreading system situated very close (20 km at it closest point) to the Tonga volcanic arc, northeast Lau Basin, Tonga. These authors show that the Fonualei Rifts have island arc basalt-geochemical affinities indistinguishable from those found associated with the Tonga arc. Within the Fonualei Rifts, no geochemical correlations are seen with inferred depth to the slab and/or distance to the arc, despite differences in depth to the slab of >50 km. Keller et al. [2008] therefore suggest that all the subduction-related magmatism in the Fonualei Rifts area is captured by the back-arc when volcanism in the adjacent arc is shut off. [11] The next five papers are focused on submarine volcanoes of the Mariana intraoceanic arc. The first, by Baker et al. [2008] gives an along-axis summary of hydrothermal activity along the Mariana arc and shows that active volcanic centers are found between 80 and 230 km above the subducting Pacific slab and that 22% occur behind the arc front. The along-axis spacing of arc-front centers peaks between 10 and 20 km and shows the asymmetric, long-tail shape typical for 25 other arcs, especially those with volcano populations greater than about 50. There is no evidence for a regular spacing of volcanic centers like there is along the Kermadec arc [de Ronde et al., 2007]. Using the new Mariana data and recent data from the Tonga-Kermadec arc, Baker et al. [2008] estimate that the 6900 km of worldwide intraoceanic arcs might host up to 252 volcanic centers, with 127 (107 submarine) being hydrothermally active. One of the volcanoes of the Mariana arc, NW Rota-1, has provided Chadwick et al. [2008] with a unique opportunity to study a gas-driven volcanic eruption in real time. Deployment of an ROV afforded these workers unparalleled views of the eruption in progress, giving insight into the construction of a submarine arc volcano. The long-term activity of NW Rota-1 has also provided the opportunity to study transport processes of volcaniclastic material onto the flanks and into the ocean basin. Walker et al.'s [2008] analysis of bathymetric surveys collected 3 years apart show that at least 3.3 × 107 m3 of material has accumulated on the flanks of the volcano between 2003 and 2006. At a shorter timescale, CTDO tows across the volcano show that downslope transport of fine-grained volcaniclastic material from the summit of NW Rota-1 manifests itself in plumes of turbid water found on the flanks down to 2900 m. These authors show that while the main plume from the erupting summit contains a significant hydrothermal component, the plumes on the flank are dominated by glass shards derived from the volcaniclastic sediments likely generated by ongoing explosive summit eruptions and/or as the result of mass-wasting processes generated by over steepening of the slope below the eruptive vent. The NW Rota-1 eruption continues up until the time of writing this introduction, to be a unique opportunity to conduct in situ studies of an erupting submarine arc volcano, with recent data from a moored hydrophone indicating the eruption has been going for at least 5 years (R. Dziak, personal communication, 2008). [12] That arc volcanoes in general have high concentrations of volatiles relative to other types of volcanoes has long been known from studies of subaerial volcanoes. By contrast, their submarine equivalents have been, to date, relatively undersampled. In a study of samples collected by submersible and ROV from six volcanoes along the Tonga-Kermadec and Mariana arcs, Lupton et al. [2008] confirm the high levels of CO2 and other gases in their hydrothermal fluids. Surprisingly, most of the vent fluids are undersaturated in CO2 even in those cases where CO2-rich gas bubbles or liquid droplets form a separate phase. This paper concludes that production of this separate phase appears to require direct injection of magmatic CO2-rich gas, although it is not clear what physical mechanism or mechanisms control the formation of the separate phase exiting at the summit of the volcanoes. [13] Finally, Davis and Moyer [2008] use T-RFLP analyses of the subunit rRNA gene to detail spatial and temporal variability of microbial mat communities along the Mariana magmatic arc and southern back-arc spreading center. The diversity of microbial mat communities along this arc appears to be much higher than at either hot spot volcanoes or on sections of the MOR at comparable scales. [14] The next group of three papers discusses aspects of hydrothermal activity along the Izu-Bonin intraoceanic arc (Figure 1). In their analyses of more than 60 dredge samples, Hein et al. [2008] show that long-term diffuse-flow hydrothermal activity manifests itself as widespread manganese mineralization along the Mariana and southern Izu-Bonin arc systems. Manganese oxides are found in both strata bound layers and as cement in volcaniclastic deposits. Variation in trace-metal contents could relate to proximity to higher-temperature hydrothermal systems. [15] The paper by Toki et al. [2008] focuses on the CH4 geochemistry of hydrothermal fluids collected from Suiyo Seamount in the Izu-Bonin arc and shows differences in the chemical and isotopic compositions between low- and high-temperature fluid discharge. These authors conclude that the excess CH4 in the low-temperature fluids must have been produced during, and after, mixing with bottom seawater in the shallow subsurface. The isotopic ratios of CH4 and CO2 indicate that the microbial processes produce the CH4 and that oxidation is occurring in the same environment. [16] Long-distance magma transport in the crust is the focus of the paper by Ishizuka et al. [2008]. They describe evidence for lateral magma transport of about 10–20 km from the primary melt lens beneath the Hachijo Nishihiyama volcano (Figure 1) to feed submarine cones on the northwest and northeast flanks of this volcano. They conclude that lateral magma transport can be controlled by a regional extensional stress regime (i.e., long distances) and by a local stress regime affected by loading of the main volcanic edifice (i.e., short distances). [17] The results presented in these papers significantly advance our understanding of volcanic, magmatic, and hydrothermal processes occurring along submarine intraoceanic arcs. We hope this will stimulate further investigations, including time series observations and long-term experiments, in this dynamic environment. [18] Additional information about several of the above-mentioned research expeditions can be found on the following Web sites: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03fire/welcome.html, http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/welcome.html, and http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/welcome.html for the Mariana arc and http://www.gns.cri.nz/research/marine/kermadec/index.html, http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/05fire/welcome.html, and http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/07fire/welcome.html for the Kermadec arc. [19] The authors thank S. Merle for assistance in making Figure 1 and Ed Baker for comments on the manuscript. The senior author was supported by the NOAA VENTS program. PMEL contribution 3233." @default.
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• W1997966277 title "Introduction to special section on Active Magmatic, Tectonic, and Hydrothermal Processes at Intraoceanic Arc Submarine Volcanoes" @default.
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