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• W1998388952 abstract "Gelatinous plankton are critical components of marine ecosystems. Recent studies are providing evidence of increased population outbursts of such species. Jellyfish seem to respond when an ecosystem is over-fished, and their ecology is under-researched. Gelatinous plankton are critical components of marine ecosystems. Recent studies are providing evidence of increased population outbursts of such species. Jellyfish seem to respond when an ecosystem is over-fished, and their ecology is under-researched. Warnings sound as climate change influences global and regional marine ecosystems [1Stenseth N.C. Ottersen G. Hurrell J.W. Belgrano A. Marine Ecosystems and Climate Variation – the North Atlantic a Comparative Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2004Google Scholar], while the awareness of pressures, vulnerabilities and failures of marine resource management and conservation increase. There is increasing concern about the consequences of anthropogenic pressures, such as over-fishing, eutrophication, chemical pollution and the transport and introductions of exotic species [2UNEP Challenges to International Waters – Regional Assessments in a Global Perspective. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya2006Google Scholar, 3Fasham M.J.R. The role of the Ocean Carbon Cycle in Global Change. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany2003Google Scholar]. The recent Current Biology paper by Lynam et al.[4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar] highlights concern that the ecosystem switch that they have observed — to jellyfish biomass dominance rather than fish in the productive Benguela ecosystem — may be a consequence of over-fishing. Internationally, integrated ecosystem approaches to assessment and management are being adopted and incorporated into active policies and directives. This approach acknowledges that ecosystem health depends on diversity and functional complexity, and that unsustainable pressures must change the balance of species, biomass and energy flow in communities, whether they do so slowly or quickly. The new ecosystem approach requires us to seek indicators of change, and interest in marine cnidarians and other gelatinous species is growing. These enigmatic, ubiquitous and at times overwhelmingly abundant animals are now recognised as key marine ecosystem elements, often as critical indicators and drivers of ecosystem performance and change. But we do not yet know enough to quantify effectively the species or their roles in food webs, or their importance relative to better known and abundant groups, such as fish. One problem with observation of a major predator switch from fish to jellyfish, such as that in the Benguela reported by Lynam et al.[4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar], is an inability to be sure of the cause or to predict the stability of the changed ecosystem. Without the knowledge to understand and predict such ecosystem change, managing fisheries consequences or recovery is guesswork, no matter how precautionary the approach. While the plight of coral reefs is emphasised in the news, apparent increases of the free-living gelatinous cousins of corals also raises concerns. Occasional and episodic swarms of gelatinous plankton are well known historically, but reports of such events are increasing in frequency, and they appear linked to other ecosystem changes. Massive population outbursts have been reported for medusae, siphonophores and ctenophores, as well as for other gelatinous groups, which include the salps, appendicularians and larvae of many benthic fauna. Gelatinous species range from the surface to great depths in every sea, and in sizes from microns to metres. Often they are too fragile and damaged to record or identify in traditional plankton nets and trawls, or they are simply ignored. Significant advances in net systems, submersibles, diving, video and new acoustic methods, such as those developed and used in the new Benguela study [4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar], now allow extensive observations and counts of these species. The results are underlining the major roles of gelatinous plankton in marine ecosystem dynamics. Taxonomic specialists, such as those on a recent Census of Marine Zooplankton cruise [5Census of Marine Zooplankton — a field project of the Census of Marine Life http://www.CMarZ.org.Google Scholar], bring us the joy of seeing new species; yet this also exposes our broad ignorance of their diversity, abundance, distribution and functions. Concerns for endangered and charismatic species such as turtles and seabirds also highlight the role of jellyfish on which many such species depend for food. The few marine scientists with active interests in these gelatinous groups have responded to new observational evidence and to the political and policy emphasis. Special science meetings, theme sessions and workshops have been held [6Proceedings of the International Conference on Jellyfish Blooms, (2000), Alabama. (2001), Hydrobiologia 451.Google Scholar, 7CIESM. (2001). Gelatinous zooplankton outbreaks: theory and practice (Monaco: CIESM Workshop Series 14), pp. 112.Google Scholar, 8ICES, PICES, GLOBEC 3rd International Zooplankton Production Symposium Workshop on Gelatinous Zooplankton and Fish (Gijón, 2003). (2004). ICES Marine Science Symposia, 220.Google Scholar, 9American Society of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), Ecology of Gelatinous Organisms (theme sessions at summer meetings in 2004, 2005).Google Scholar] and science reviews have been recently compiled [10Purcell J.E. Arai M.N. Interactions of pelagic cnidarians and ctenophores with fish: a review.Hydrobiologia. 2001; 451: 27-44Crossref Scopus (441) Google Scholar, 11Purcell J.E. Climate effects on formations of jellyfish and ctenophore blooms: a review.J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK. 2005; 85: 461-476Crossref Scopus (351) Google Scholar, 12Arai M.N. Pelagic coelenterates and eutrophication: a review.Hydrobiologia. 2001; 451: 69-87Crossref Scopus (176) Google Scholar, 13Arai M.N. Predation on pelagic coelenterates: a review.J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK. 2005; 85: 523-536Crossref Scopus (194) Google Scholar]. Despite increasing awareness of their importance, research on gelatinous organisms is just a small fraction of that driven by resource management needs for fisheries, pollution assessments or ocean weather forecasting. If we are truly to adopt ecosystem approaches, then we clearly need to learn more about the often dominant gelatinous plankton. What then do we know of the gelatinous plankton in relation to ecosystems and socio-economic areas of concern? For fish and fisheries, jellyfish are a mixed blessing. Valuable, ancient and largely artisanal fisheries exist in Asian seas for several edible species, mainly supplying Japanese and Chinese markets. Large jellyfish swarms interfere directly with effective fishing operations, they clog nets which can burst, and fish may avoid jellyfish swarms. Fishermen are affected by stings and survival of undersize fish escaping their nets may be impaired. Most medusae, siphonophores and ctenophores routinely compete for plankton prey with larval, juvenile and many adult pelagic fish. Incidentally, these jellyfish also consume fish eggs, larvae and some adult fish. Conversely, jellyfish are increasingly being noted in fish diets. As with fish, some jellyfish feed mainly on others of their kind, and it seems that jellyfish and fish may form parallel and perhaps alternative guilds of predators in marine ecosystems. As Lynam et al.[4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar] point out; a switch from fish to jellyfish dominance is not a desirable change. In contrast with fish, jellyfish are simple organisms. Fish may feed rapidly to satiation, have sophisticated storage reserves and may swim or migrate long distances to feed or to spawning grounds. Jellyfish largely drift with the currents, migrating only vertically in the water column as non-visual, ambush feeders. Able to feed effectively without saturation even when food is abundant, many jellyfish can subsist on absorbed dissolved organic matter or simply shrink when starved. Gelatinous species generally grow and reproduce very quickly, often with asexual as well as sexual reproductive stages, and alternative seasonal life strategies. Many species have sessile, planktivorous polyp colonies, which in some cases may remain dormant in cysts when stressed. Polyps produce sexual planktonic medusae, though oceanic species by-pass the polyp phase. Jellyfish are naturally adapted to patchy and diffuse resources, responding to high food patches by rapid individual and population growth. Some fish species and juveniles use the shelter of the jellyfish for protection from predation by larger fish, and may feed on the jellyfish's prey and parasites. Jellyfish are likely intermediate vectors of various fish parasites. At local time and space scales, jellyfish swarms or invasions may exert strong influences on the recruitment and productivity of some fish populations. Given the evidence in the Benguela [4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar], and from other ecosystems, it seems this may propagate throughout an entire ecosystem. For fish, jellyfish and other zooplankton, long term distribution and abundance patterns have been correlated with climate change indicators; such as the El Niño-southern Oscillation, the North Pacific Decadal Oscillation, or the North Atlantic Oscillation. Occasionally, climate changes, which alter temperature distributions, nutrient fluxes and current fields, may induce rapid regime shifts in marine ecosystems, resulting in alternative environmental and community patterns. Causal mechanisms for such correlations are poorly understood, and biophysical modelling and prognoses are very limited. There is a lack of sufficient and essential field data on the biological components, and scientific understanding of their environmental sensitivities is sparse. There are many long term monitoring data on fish stocks. The new observations in the Benguela system [4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar] suggest an urgent need to monitor at appropriate temporal and spatial scales the responses of other key species groups to variable and changing environments. In addition to climatic and environmental effects, over fishing, particularly on stocks of small, pelagic, planktivore fish, may lead to changes in plankton communities. Many fish stocks are in decline and from some regions there is strong evidence for coincident rises in jellyfish abundance [4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar, 14Graham W.M. Pages F. Hamner W.M. A physical context for gelatinous zooplankton aggregations: a review.Hydrobiologia. 2001; 451: 199-212Crossref Scopus (313) Google Scholar]. Fish often reproduce when jellyfish are least abundant; however, overlaps and seasonal shifts in production of fish or jellyfish will have consequences. Once jellyfish become dominant in a region, annual cycles of strong jellyfish production may inhibit the revival of some depleted fish stocks. The effects of introduced jellyfish in the heavily fished Black Sea are a cautionary tale. In a Norwegian fjord, Lurefjorden, there are almost no fish; the jellyfish dominate [15Eiane K. Aksnes D.L. Bagøien E. Kaartvedt S. Fish or jellies—a question of visibility?.Limnol. Oceanogr. 1999; 44: 1352-1357Crossref Scopus (87) Google Scholar]. Aquaculture is a global growth industry with intensive monocultures of a few species. This requires economic husbandry, production and harvesting through effective containment, appropriate food supplies and avoidance of losses from diseases and parasites. Swarming jellyfish, along with blooms of some harmful algal species are significant causes of production losses to the aquaculture industry today. Unlike agriculture, such losses cannot be controlled by chemical treatments or crop rotations. In practice, aquaculture simply adapts procedures to reduce or absorb these risks and impacts. Cnidarians' stinging cells are toxic with complexes equivalent to snake venoms, and are occasionally as lethal. Aquaculture farms, usually in sheltered inshore sites, may be exposed to local and seasonally large populations of toxic algae and jellyfish. Occasionally, and usually briefly, influxes of oceanic water and plankton are carried into productive shelf seas and around aquaculture facilities. Here they may form opportunistic blooms and thriving, toxic swarms. When these die off their mass decay may also briefly deoxygenate the water, which can also result in mortalities of natural local fauna and of farmed species. An ecosystem-wide change as observed in the Benguela [4Lynam C.P. Gibbons M.J. Axelsen B.E. Sparks C.A. Coetzee J. Heywood B.G. Brierley A. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R492-R493Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar] may increase the likelihood there of toxic plankton effects on aquaculture. Other economic impacts of jellyfish come from their effects on coastal industries and power stations, which use seawater cooling. In Japan and elsewhere, jellyfish have impeded or blocked the intakes and screening systems, affecting power supplies [16Uye S. Shimauchi H. Population biomass, feeding, respiration and growth rates, and carbon budget of the scyphomedusa Aurelia aurita in the Inland Sea of Japan.J. Plankton Res. 2005; 27: 237-248Crossref Scopus (107) Google Scholar]. Often tourism has been seriously affected by jellyfish swarms appearing in coastal resorts. With increased travel, more, and often ill-informed travellers are exposed to the most dangerous jellyfish species in tropical seas. Jellyfish, however, have already proved of great value as a resource for pharmacology [17Bone Q. Gelatinous animals and physiology: a review.J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK. 2005; 85: 641-653Crossref Scopus (10) Google Scholar], providing active biochemical and genetic substances such as Aqueorin and Obelin. Gelatinous species play many roles in marine ecosystems and communities. Herbivorous groups (salps and appendicularians) consume bacteria, phytoplankton and micro-zooplankton. This constricts the secondary productivity of the less fragile and better known crustacean plankton and fish food species, such as copepods and euphausiids. Excretion, egestion and decay supplies regenerated nutrients fuelling phytoplankton production, while faecal products and remains form major material transports from the productive surface waters to the seabed and ocean deeps. Gelatinous bodies and egesta form a three-dimensional matrix of bioactive surfaces in the water column. The pressures of jellyfish predation are felt across the heterotrophic food web from microplankton to fish and can exert strong control on production and on material and energy flow in food webs. The gelatinous plankton cycle and recycle enormous amounts of matter in the oceans, and strongly influence food webs and elemental fluxes. Evidence indicates that ocean climate changes affect seasonal timing and production cycles in plankton and fish. Interactions with pressures from over-fishing, eutrophication and pollution may occur in ways we neither expect nor understand. As high level predators that integrate effects lower down the food web and have sensitive and rapid responses to change, jellyfish are good candidates to be informative indicators of the status and performance of marine ecosystems." @default.
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• W1998388952 title "Marine Ecology: Gelatinous Bells May Ring Change in Marine Ecosystems" @default.
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