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• W1999858006 abstract "Whereas those who live in the native ranges of the large feline carnivores are well aware of the risks of cat and human encounters, North Americans and Europeans are increasingly exposed to exotic animals through travel, ecotourism, leisure pursuits in rural areas, occupational exposure, zoo and animal park visits, wild habitat encroachment at the urban-wildlands interface, and contact with exotic pets. In encounters during which persons have been severely injured, lapses in animal management protocols, lack of appropriate adult supervision, and intoxication have been reported. Unlike common domestic pets that have lived in close association with humans for thousands of years, no matter where individual large felines may have been raised, they remain wild carnivores with strong prey-drive and territorial instincts. The emergency management of large felid attacks is similar to that of other major trauma: stabilization; management of significant orthopedic, neurologic, vascular, and soft tissue injuries; antibiotic coverage provided for the number of organisms that inhabit their mouths and the potential for tetanus and rabies; and early management in survivors of likely posttraumatic stress disorder. We must actively explore responsible measures globally that can be taken to ensure biologically appropriate, ethical, safe, and sustainable conservation of these large carnivores in both their natural habitats and captivity. Whereas those who live in the native ranges of the large feline carnivores are well aware of the risks of cat and human encounters, North Americans and Europeans are increasingly exposed to exotic animals through travel, ecotourism, leisure pursuits in rural areas, occupational exposure, zoo and animal park visits, wild habitat encroachment at the urban-wildlands interface, and contact with exotic pets. In encounters during which persons have been severely injured, lapses in animal management protocols, lack of appropriate adult supervision, and intoxication have been reported. Unlike common domestic pets that have lived in close association with humans for thousands of years, no matter where individual large felines may have been raised, they remain wild carnivores with strong prey-drive and territorial instincts. The emergency management of large felid attacks is similar to that of other major trauma: stabilization; management of significant orthopedic, neurologic, vascular, and soft tissue injuries; antibiotic coverage provided for the number of organisms that inhabit their mouths and the potential for tetanus and rabies; and early management in survivors of likely posttraumatic stress disorder. We must actively explore responsible measures globally that can be taken to ensure biologically appropriate, ethical, safe, and sustainable conservation of these large carnivores in both their natural habitats and captivity. Americans keep more animals as pets than any other country. Commonly, this involves dogs, cats, birds, horses, and fish. In 2006, 37.2% of households owned 1 or more dogs (72.1 million), and 32.4% owned cats (81.7 million).1American Veterinary Medical Association, Schaumburg, IL. U.S. pet ownership and demographics sourcebook, 2007. Available at: http://www.avma.org. Accessed January 3, 2013.Google Scholar In the last several decades, an increasing variety and number of exotic animals have also become popular as pets.2Pavlin B.I. Schloegel L.M. Daszak P. Risk of importing zoonotic diseases through wildlife trade, United States.Emerg Infect Dis. 2009; 15: 1721-1726Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar The United States is the largest importer of wildlife worldwide. According to US Fish and Wildlife Service data, more than 650 million animals were imported legally into the United States between 2003 and 2007 for zoos, exhibition, food, research, game ranches, and pets.3Broken Screens Report. The regulation of live animal imports in the United States. Defenders of Wildlife, 2007. Available at: www.defenders.org/animalimports. Accessed December 27, 2012.Google Scholar As these exotic animals become difficult for owners to handle, many are voluntarily or involuntarily relinquished to animal welfare organizations and dealers. News agency reports highlight a number of exotic animal attacks and animal welfare organizations being pressed beyond their capabilities to handle the increasing number of large, potentially dangerous animals they receive. Lapses in animal management protocols, inadequate facilities, lack of appropriate adult supervision of children, and intoxication have been implicated in these occurrences. Data collected by The Humane Society of the United States, a large animal rescue organization, suggest that fewer than 400 of the estimated 5,000 to 7,000 captive tigers in the United States are held at facilities accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Despite the passage of the Captive Wildlife Safety Act in 2004 and bans on exotic animal ownership in 19 states, that would suggest that the remaining tigers, as well as other large felines, are housed at unaccredited breeding facilities, roadside and traveling zoos, private menageries, and game farms. Unaccredited facilities pose a threat to the community owing to a higher likelihood of fatal attack or injury occurring in these facilities or by animals that escape, create a significant burden for law enforcement and emergency response agencies, and jeopardize sanctuary and conservation efforts.4Humane Society of the United States. Available at: http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/wildlife/captive/big-cat-incidents.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2012.Google Scholar, 5Big cat rescue exotic animal attack database. Available at: www.bornfreeusa.org/reports/database/index.php. Accessed May 5, 2012.Google Scholar Between 1990 and 2011, more than 300 dangerous incidents involving large feline carnivores were reported in 44 states. Four children died and dozens of others lost limbs or suffered other traumatic injuries. Sixteen adults were killed, and more than a hundred were mauled.4Humane Society of the United States. Available at: http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/wildlife/captive/big-cat-incidents.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2012.Google Scholar Between 1990 and 2010, 172 large feline carnivores also escaped, with an unclear number of these animals recaptured or killed; and 94 captive large felines were killed.4Humane Society of the United States. Available at: http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/wildlife/captive/big-cat-incidents.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2012.Google Scholar In 2011, the Big Cat Rescue database, another large animal welfare organization, indicated that 75% of all attacks were reported in the United States.5Big cat rescue exotic animal attack database. Available at: www.bornfreeusa.org/reports/database/index.php. Accessed May 5, 2012.Google Scholar Although not providing data on numbers of incidents, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), which has jurisdiction over exotic animal care in the United States, has issued a number of statements and instituted changes in procedure that would support concerns raised by animal welfare organizations about these issues. In February 2000, the USDA issued a position statement, Large Wild and Exotic Cats Make Dangerous Pets, stating that “Large wild and exotic cats such as lions, tigers, cougars, and leopards are dangerous animals. The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) believes that only qualified, trained professionals should keep these animals, even if they are only to be pets. Care and handling of these wild and exotic cats should be left to trained professionals who have the knowledge and means to maintain them properly. APHIS’ Animal Care (AC) program is responsible for enforcing the Animal Welfare Act, which includes regulating and inspecting exhibitors of wild and exotic animals. AC personnel have seen too many instances where wild and exotic cats kept by untrained people have not only harmed people but suffered themselves due to poor care.”6USDA Animal and Plant Inspection Service miscellaneous publication no 1560. Large wild and exotic cats make dangerous pets. Available at: www.aphis.usda.gov/ac. Accessed June 10, 2012.Google Scholar In 2013, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service petitioned to amend the Animal Welfare Act to prohibit public contact with large and exotic cats, bears, and nonhuman primates and define a “sufficient distance” that must be kept from these animals by the public. This petition also addressed the prevention of public handling or early separation of immature species from their mothers. Comments from the public were due October 4, 2013.7Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Inspection Service. Petition to amend animal welfare act regulations to prohibit public contact with big cats, bears, and nonhuman primates. CFR parts 2 and 3, docket no. APHIS-2012-0107, Federal Registrar/Vol 78, No 150/Monday August 5, 2013/Proposed Rules 47215.Google Scholar The USDA also initiated more stringent inspection requirements for large felid carnivore enclosures in August 2013.8New guidelines for lion and tiger enclosure height and kick-ins. Available at: www.aphis.usda/gov/ac. Accessed August 12, 2013.Google Scholar On July 29, 2013, Senator Richard Blumenthal of Connecticut introduced Bill S.1381, The Big Cats and Public Safety Protection Act. This bill would amend the prior Lacey Act Amendments of 1981 to prohibit private possession of large and exotic cats except at certain facilities, such as accredited zoos. Bill S.1381 would require a person who currently possesses a large and exotic cat to register with the USDA to be able to keep it. Except at accredited zoos and research and educational institutions, this act would outlaw the breeding of any large and exotic cat. This bill is being reviewed by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works.9Big Cats and Public Safety Protection Act. S1381. Available at: www.govtracks.us/congress/bills/…/s1381. Accessed January 15, 2013.Google Scholar Globally, injuries caused by animals are responsible for thousands of deaths annually. Large feline carnivores pose major threats to humans in their native habitats, despite dwindling populations due to loss and degradation of habitat, diminishing natural prey populations, poaching, illegal wildlife trade, “canned hunting,” and other threats to their survival.10Callaham M.L. Wild and domestic animal attacks.Mgmt Wilderness Environ Emerg. 1989; 10 (683–676)Google Scholar, 11Treves A. Naughton-Treves L. Risk and opportunity for humans co-existing with large carnivores.J Human Evol. 1999; 36: 275-282Crossref PubMed Scopus (141) Google Scholar For those who are unaware of this industry, “canned hunting” refers to game farms or hunting ranches that breed and raise animals or buy exotic animals so that hunting enthusiasts can pay for a guaranteed kill and trophy.12Lindsey P. Alexander R. Balme G. et al.Possible relationships between the South African captive-bred lion hunting industry and the hunting and conservation of lions elsewhere in Africa.So African J Wildlife Res. 2012; 42: 11-22Crossref Scopus (32) Google Scholar, 13Big Cat Rescue. Canned hunting: killing tamed wild animals in fenced areas for sport. Available at: http://bigcatrescue.org/abuse-issues/issues/canned-hunting/. Accessed December 27, 2012.Google Scholar Much of what we know about large-carnivore attacks on humans is derived from case reports and small cases series regarding the management of injuries that occurred. Both wild and captive felid attack data are incomplete and suffer from significant flaws in collection, as such, available numbers vary widely. This article will review the threat posed to humans by large and exotic cats in both the wild and captivity, discuss the evaluation and management of large feline carnivore attacks, and discuss these interactions in the setting of the public health and conservation issues raised. Articles and book chapters published from 1950 through 2013 were searched using Medline and the PubMed, MD Consult, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), JSTOR (Journal Storage), Cochrane, and Google Scholar databases. An extensive electronic search strategy was also developed to obtain information available on the Web. MeSH (Medical Subject Heading) key words and terms used in the searches were as follows: big cat, felid, feline, lion, tiger, leopard, cheetah, mountain lion, puma, jaguar, wild, wilderness, captivity, zoo, circus, canned hunting, game ranch, attacks, injuries, trauma, management, occupational, communicable diseases, zoonotic, zoonoses, environmental microbiology, bacterial infections, rabies, infection, infectious, microorganism, pathogens, pathogenic, occupational exposure, occupational health, incidence, prevalence, epidem*, occurrence, prevalence, exposure, etiology, emerging, risk factors, risk assessment, and conservation. Relevant articles, papers, and online resources were selected by screening the titles (first step), abstracts (second step), and entire articles (third step) retrieved through the database searches, with further articles retrieved from references in the initial sources (fourth step). Electronic sites utilized included state, national, and international fish and game and health agencies; national injury data; international, national, and municipal newspapers; and data collected by large conservation and animal welfare and rescue organizations. The search results were evaluated for usefulness, reliability, and applicability to the topic, based on the authors’ experience in the evaluation and management of animal attacks, emergency medical care, environmental medicine, and animal rescue and conservation. Among large feline carnivores, tigers remain the most frequent killers of humans worldwide. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, tigers killed approximately 34,075 persons in the Indian subcontinent, and entire villages were abandoned because of their predation.14Data collected by the British in India. Available at: http://dsal.uchicago.edu/statistics. Accessed December 2, 2012.Google Scholar In the 20th century, one source conservatively estimated that tigers killed approximately 12,600 persons,15Löe J. Röskaft E. Large carnivores and human safety: a review.Ambio J Human Environ. 2004; 33: 283-288Google Scholar and another stated that 600 to 800 human deaths occur per year from tiger attacks in Asia, with the most occurring in India.16Bradford J.E. Freer L. Bites and injuries inflicted by wild animals.in: Auerbach P.S. Wilderness Medicine. 6th ed. Mosby, St. Louis, MO2001: 1102-1126Google Scholar Most large predatory animals can, and will, scavenge human carcasses or occasionally pursue humans as prey; however, true “man-eaters,” that is, individual animals that incorporate human flesh into their regular diet, are rare. Tigers may become man-eaters because of illness or injury, advanced age, or loss of natural prey and habitat. Tigers also may kill a villager collecting water or wood, fishing, or attempting to protect flock animals, and finding it relatively easy, may lose their natural fear of humans. Unlike some well-described leopards and lions, however, it is rare for tigers to prey exclusively on humans.17McDougal C. The man-eating tiger in geographical and historical perspective.in: Tilson R.L. Seal U.S. Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publications, Park City, NJ1993: 435-488Google Scholar In 2010, 3062 tigers were noted to exist internationally in the wild in 13 countries. India, which reported a population of 3642 wild Bengal tigers in 2001, now estimates, after the use of improved survey methodology, that the population numbers between 1100 and 1200.18Morell V. Can the wild tiger survive?.Wildlife Biol. 2009; 317: 1312-1314Google Scholar, 19Bagla P. Tigers in decline, Indian survey finds. News of the week.Science. 2008; 319: 1027Crossref PubMed Scopus (2) Google Scholar It is estimated that tigers have lost more than 40% of their habitat in the past decades, with remaining wild populations increasingly forced into close contact with local human populations.20Traffic: The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network. Tigers—an iconic species in danger of extinction. Available at: http://www.traffic.org/tigers. Accessed January17, 2013.Google Scholar Captive tigers in privately owned facilities, zoos, and circuses and other animal acts periodically injure and kill their attendants. That was perhaps best publicized in 2003, when Roy Horn, of the famous Las Vegas “Siegfried and Roy” act, was critically injured by a veteran 7-year-old, 600-pound white tiger in the middle of a show.21Siegfried and Roy’s Roy still critical. E-online. Available at: http://www.eonline.com/news/items/o,1,12634,00.html?tnews. Accessed June 12, 2012.Google Scholar In 2003, Nyhus et al22Nyhus P.J. Tilson R.L. Tomlinson J.L. Dangerous animals in captivity: ex situ tiger conflict and implications for private ownership of exotic animals.Zoo Biol. 2003; 26: 753-786Google Scholar published an analysis of 30 international media sources and other documents (1998–2001), documenting 59 incidents involving people injured or killed by captive tigers globally. In the United States, 7 people were killed and at least 27 were injured, an average of 2 fatal attacks and at least 9 nonfatal attacks per year. All but 1 fatal attack in the United States occurred in situations where tigers were privately owned or held in private facilities. Forty-two percent of the victims were classified as visitors.22Nyhus P.J. Tilson R.L. Tomlinson J.L. Dangerous animals in captivity: ex situ tiger conflict and implications for private ownership of exotic animals.Zoo Biol. 2003; 26: 753-786Google Scholar Lions usually do not hunt people; however, some occasionally injure or kill hunters, local inhabitants, and rarely those on safari, in their natural ranges (Figure 1). In general, lions are thought by experienced wildlife biologists and hunters to be less dangerous to humans than tigers or leopards. In the literature, estimates of attacks vary quite widely, which may in part reflect lack of resources to collect data in rural areas where attacks often occur. One investigator noted that analysis of available 20th century data conservatively estimated that lions have killed 552 people in their natural African and Asian habitats, and another estimated that lions are responsible for 300 to 500 human deaths per year.16Bradford J.E. Freer L. Bites and injuries inflicted by wild animals.in: Auerbach P.S. Wilderness Medicine. 6th ed. Mosby, St. Louis, MO2001: 1102-1126Google Scholar Man-eating lions have been well publicized,23Peterhans K. Gnoske L.C. Gnoske T.P. The science of “man-eating” among lions (Panthera leo) with a reconstruction of the natural history of the “man-eaters” of Tsavo.J East African Nat Hist. 2001; 90: 1-40Crossref Google Scholar, 24Yeakel J.D. Patterson B.D. Fox-Dobbs K. et al.Cooperation and individuality among man-eating lions.Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009; 106: 19040-19043Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar, 25Frank LG, Hemson G, Kushnir H, Packer C. Lions, conflict and conservation in Eastern Africa. Eastern and Southern African Lion Conservation Workshop. Felid Conservation and Biology Conference. 2006. Available at: http://www.conservationforce.org/pdf/lions,%20conflict%20and%20conservation.pdf. Accessed January 19, 2013.Google Scholar, 26Tucker A. The most ferocious man-eating lions. 2009. Available at: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-most-ferocious-man-eating-lions.html. Accessed January 19, 2013.Google Scholar, 27Packer C. Ikanda D. Kissui B. Kushnir H. Lion attacks on humans in Tanzania.Nature. 2005; 436: 927-928Crossref PubMed Scopus (168) Google Scholar, 28Caputo P. Ghosts of Tsavo: Stalking the Mystery Lions of East Africa. National Geographic Society, Washington, DC2003Google Scholar, 29Munnion C. Big cats get a taste for illegal immigrants. Electronic Telegraph London, August 26, 1998. Available at: http://www.igorilla.com/gorilla/animal/big_cats_get_taste_for.html. Accessed January 19, 2013.Google Scholar including the 2 brothers in Tsavo, Kenya, and were initially reported to be responsible for 130 deaths during a 9-month interval in 1898 during the building of the British East African Railroad;23Peterhans K. Gnoske L.C. Gnoske T.P. The science of “man-eating” among lions (Panthera leo) with a reconstruction of the natural history of the “man-eaters” of Tsavo.J East African Nat Hist. 2001; 90: 1-40Crossref Google Scholar however, a newer, more rigorous study substantiated only 3 deaths.24Yeakel J.D. Patterson B.D. Fox-Dobbs K. et al.Cooperation and individuality among man-eating lions.Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009; 106: 19040-19043Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar Lone, old, injured, or ill lions may find humans on foot easier prey than their traditional diet.29Munnion C. Big cats get a taste for illegal immigrants. Electronic Telegraph London, August 26, 1998. Available at: http://www.igorilla.com/gorilla/animal/big_cats_get_taste_for.html. Accessed January 19, 2013.Google Scholar, 30Frump R.R. The Man-Eaters of Eden: Life and Death in Kruger National Park. The Lyons Press, Guilford, CT2006Google Scholar, 31Durrheim D.N. Leggat P.A. Risk to tourists posed by wild mammals in South Africa.J Travel Med. 1999; 6: 172-179Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar Scarcity of traditional prey, or prey feeding on crops near human habitation, also appear to drive dietary specialization on humans.24Yeakel J.D. Patterson B.D. Fox-Dobbs K. et al.Cooperation and individuality among man-eating lions.Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009; 106: 19040-19043Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar In 2006, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimated that lion populations have declined by at least 30% in recent decades and the species’ geographic ranges in Africa and Asia (Gir Forest in India) have shrunk by as much as 82%, providing increasing human-lion interface.32The African lion. Assuring its conservation in West and Central Africa. IUCN. Available at: http://www.iucn.org/fr/nouvelles_homepage/nouvelles_par_date/annees_precedentes_news/2005_news_fr/?3489/the-african-lion-assuring-its-conservation-in-west-and-central-africa. Accessed January 19, 2013.Google Scholar Periodically, workers or visitors to zoos, circuses and animal acts, animal sanctuaries, or privately owned facilities are injured or killed by lions. A 2013 incident, in which a 4-year-old male African lion escaped a holding pen and attacked and killed a young worker as she was cleaning his enclosure at a California wildlife sanctuary, illustrates this risk.33Dell’Amore C. National Geographic News. March 8, 2013. Available at: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/03/130308-lions-attack-cat-haven-california-animals-nation. Accessed March 8, 2013.Google Scholar The worker died quickly of a broken neck, and additional injuries were inflicted post mortem. Leopards may attack when wounded, trapped, or cornered, with mauling much more common than death. Whereas leopard attacks were more commonly reported in India during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,34Quigley H. Herrero S. Characterization and prevention of attacks on humans.in: Woodroffe R. Thirgood S. Rabinowitz A. People and Wildlife: Conflict or Co-existence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK2005: 27-48Google Scholar attacks in India are still relatively common, and in some regions of the country, leopards kill more humans than all other large carnivores combined.35Athreya VR, Thakur SS, Chaudhuri S, Belsare AV. A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra. Available at: http://www.projectwaghoba.in/docs/junnar_conflict_report_athreya_et_2004_condensed.pdf. Accessed January 13, 2013.Google Scholar Exact worldwide numbers are unclear, with one researcher noting approximately 400 leopard-related deaths per year in Africa and Asia,16Bradford J.E. Freer L. Bites and injuries inflicted by wild animals.in: Auerbach P.S. Wilderness Medicine. 6th ed. Mosby, St. Louis, MO2001: 1102-1126Google Scholar and another reporting an estimated 840 deaths in the 20th century.15Löe J. Röskaft E. Large carnivores and human safety: a review.Ambio J Human Environ. 2004; 33: 283-288Google Scholar Attempts at reducing human-leopard conflict have proven difficult. As with the other large cats, attacks increase during periods of drought and when the leopard’s natural prey becomes scarce. Shrinking leopard habitat and growing human populations also contribute to increasing leopard-human interactions. Translocation—the capture, transport, and release of “problem leopards”—has proven ineffective, expensive, and often fatal to the cat, and may increase aggressiveness toward humans among translocated animals.36Treves A. Karanth K.U. Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide.Conservation Biol. 2003; 17: 1491-1499Crossref Scopus (999) Google Scholar, 37Linnell J.C.D. Aanes R. Swenson J.E. et al.Translocation of carnivores as a method for managing problem animals: a review.Biodivers Conserv. 1997; 6: 1245-1257Crossref Scopus (159) Google Scholar A number of leopards have been publicized as notorious man-eaters. Perhaps the most infamous, the Panar man-eater, was a male Indian leopard responsible for at least 400 fatal attacks on humans in the early 20th century.38Corbett E.J. The Temple Tiger and More Man-Eaters of Kumaon. Oxford University Press, London, UK1954: 64-86Google Scholar Some experts believe that once a leopard has killed and eaten a human, they are likely to persist as man-eaters. Leopard attacks on humans tend to occur at night, and often close to or in villages.15Löe J. Röskaft E. Large carnivores and human safety: a review.Ambio J Human Environ. 2004; 33: 283-288Google Scholar A number of fatal attacks have also occurred in zoos and in homes with pet leopards.39Vogel J.S. Parker J.R. Jordan F.B. et al.Persian leopard (Panthera pardus) attack in Oklahoma: case report.Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2000; 3: 264-269Crossref Scopus (18) Google Scholar Before the antibiotic era, victims of leopard attacks more often died of wound infections rather than from the attack itself.16Bradford J.E. Freer L. Bites and injuries inflicted by wild animals.in: Auerbach P.S. Wilderness Medicine. 6th ed. Mosby, St. Louis, MO2001: 1102-1126Google Scholar In contrast to available data on the other large African and Asian feline predators, cheetah attacks on humans are rarely reported. In reported incidents, limited injuries have been found. Durrheim and Leggett31Durrheim D.N. Leggat P.A. Risk to tourists posed by wild mammals in South Africa.J Travel Med. 1999; 6: 172-179Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar extensively reviewed press reports of injuries after tourist contacts with carnivores and other mammals in South Africa and documented 21 incidents over a 10-year period, including 5 injuries from lions and 1 from a leopard, but none from a cheetah.31Durrheim D.N. Leggat P.A. Risk to tourists posed by wild mammals in South Africa.J Travel Med. 1999; 6: 172-179Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar In the Americas, 2 kinds of large felid carnivores—jaguars and mountain lions—pose threats to humans in their natural habitats. The jaguar has the strongest bite power of all the large cats.40Wroe S. McHenry C. Thompson J. Comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behavior in fossil taxa.Proc Royal Soc. 2006; B272: 619-625Google Scholar Jaguars are usually stalk-and-ambush predators rather than chase predators. They have been very rarely reported to attack humans in the wild.41Neto M.F.C. Neto D.G. Haddad V. Attacks by Jaguars (Panthera onca) on in central Brazil: report of three cases, with observation of a death.Wilderness Environ Med. 2011; 22: 130-135Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar In domestication, attacks on keepers at small zoos42Zoo investigates fatal jaguar attack on employee. ABC 7 News. February 25, 2007. Available at: http:www.thedenverchannel.com/news/11107633/detail.html. Accessed February 26, 2012.Google Scholar, 43Jaguar attacks zoo keeper. Red Orbit. January 20, 2009. Available at: http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1625444/jaguar_attacks_zookeeper/. Accessed February 26, 2012.Google Scholar and on a trainer in an animal menagerie have been reported.44Jaguar attacks trainer. Mme Maurella severely injured in a menagerie. New York Times. June 3, 1900. Available at: http://query.newyorktimes.com/gst/abstract.html. Accessed June 5, 2012.Google Scholar These attacks resulted in critical injuries in 2 cases, with death from neck and spinal cord injury in a third case. These reports highlight the severity of injury produced and the problems inherent with maintaining these large carnivores appropriately and safely in captivity. Mountain lion (cougar, puma) attacks have been reported in North American parks, recreation areas, and regions where human habitation encroaches on their native habitats. In the 20- to 100-mile home ranges of mountain lions, pets, small children, lone cyclists, joggers, and hikers may be considered fair game by these large, powerful, agile, and intelligent predators.45Mountain lions. Coarsegold Resource Conservation District, California Department of Fish and Game Guidelines. Available at: http://www.cred.org. Accessed May 5, 2009.Google Scholar Both increases and decreases in natural prey populations relative to human habitation may affect mountain lion populations, hunting patterns, and ranges. Mountain lions m" @default.
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• W1999858006 title "Human Attacks by Large Felid Carnivores in Captivity and in the Wild" @default.
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