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• W2002128462 abstract "Desensitization and recovery of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+] i ) responses to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) were measured in HEK293 cells stably expressing the G protein-coupled TRH receptor. TRH caused a large, rapid, and transient increase in IP3 and a biphasic increase in [Ca2+] i. Desensitization of the TRH response was measured by exposing cells to TRH, washing, and then incubating the cells in hormone-free medium before reintroducing TRH and measuring IP3, [Ca2+] i, and intracellular Ca2+ pool size. When cells were incubated with 1 μm TRH for 10 s or 10 min and reexposed to TRH, there was almost no IP3 or [Ca2+] i increase. The IP3 response recovered first, followed by the [Ca2+] i response. The ionomycin-releasable intracellular Ca2+ pool was almost completely depleted by TRH, and pool refilling was slow. Thrombin, endothelin, and carbachol, when combined, stimulated large increases in IP3 and [Ca2+] i, but did not block the IP3 or [Ca2+] i responses to TRH measured 10 min later. In contrast, cells exposed to TRH first responded to combined agonists with a nearly normal increase in IP3, but no rise in [Ca2+] i. Thus, the IP3 response to TRH displays homologous desensitization, whereas the [Ca2+] i response displays heterologous desensitization because depletion of intracellular Ca2+ pools prevents responses to other hormones. Desensitization and recovery of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+] i ) responses to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) were measured in HEK293 cells stably expressing the G protein-coupled TRH receptor. TRH caused a large, rapid, and transient increase in IP3 and a biphasic increase in [Ca2+] i. Desensitization of the TRH response was measured by exposing cells to TRH, washing, and then incubating the cells in hormone-free medium before reintroducing TRH and measuring IP3, [Ca2+] i, and intracellular Ca2+ pool size. When cells were incubated with 1 μm TRH for 10 s or 10 min and reexposed to TRH, there was almost no IP3 or [Ca2+] i increase. The IP3 response recovered first, followed by the [Ca2+] i response. The ionomycin-releasable intracellular Ca2+ pool was almost completely depleted by TRH, and pool refilling was slow. Thrombin, endothelin, and carbachol, when combined, stimulated large increases in IP3 and [Ca2+] i, but did not block the IP3 or [Ca2+] i responses to TRH measured 10 min later. In contrast, cells exposed to TRH first responded to combined agonists with a nearly normal increase in IP3, but no rise in [Ca2+] i. Thus, the IP3 response to TRH displays homologous desensitization, whereas the [Ca2+] i response displays heterologous desensitization because depletion of intracellular Ca2+ pools prevents responses to other hormones. The Ca2+-mobilizing pathway for G protein-coupled receptors involves multiple steps (1Berridge M.J. Nature. 1993; 361: 315-325Crossref PubMed Scopus (6188) Google Scholar). Agonist binding causes the activation of G protein, resulting in the stimulation of phospholipase Cβ and increased hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)bisphosphate, producing inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) 1The abbreviations used are: IP3, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate; [Ca2+] i, intracellular free Ca2+ concentration; TRH, thyrotropin-releasing hormone; HBSS, Hanks' balanced salt solution; BAPTA, 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid. and diacylglycerol. IP3 binds to its receptor, a Ca2+ channel on the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, releasing Ca2+ from the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and increasing the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+] i ). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) acts on receptors in lactotrophs and thyrotrophs of the anterior pituitary that are coupled to Gq/11 to cause a biphasic increase in [Ca2+] i (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar). The initial transient [Ca2+] i spike, which is primarily due to release of intracellular Ca2+, is followed by a sustained [Ca2+] i elevation that results from increased influx through L-type Ca2+ channels and capacitative Ca2+ influx. The initial [Ca2+] i spike is terminated as IP3 concentrations decline, intracellular Ca2+ stores become exhausted, and cytoplasmic Ca2+ is resequestered and pumped from the cell. Desensitization is defined as a decline in the response to an agonist over time or a decline in the response to a subsequent agonist exposure. There are conflicting reports about whether the TRH response undergoes either form of desensitization in pituitary cells or following expression of the receptor in other cell types (3Gershengorn M.C. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1986; 48: 515-526Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 4Anderson L. Alexander C.L. Faccenda E. Eidne K.A. Biochem. J. 1995; 311: 385-392Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar, 5Drummond A.H. Bushfield M. Macphee C.H. Mol. Pharmacol. 1984; 25: 201-208PubMed Google Scholar, 6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar, 7Perlman J.H. Gershengorn M.C. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 2679-2686Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar, 8Torjesen P.A. Bjoro T. Ostberg B.C. Haug E. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1988; 56: 107-114Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar, 9Imai A. Gershengorn M.C. J. Biol. Chem. 1985; 260: 10536-10540Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). The contradictory findings may be a consequence of differences in the methods used to assess the TRH response. In some cases, IP3mass has been measured at intervals after TRH has been given (5Drummond A.H. Bushfield M. Macphee C.H. Mol. Pharmacol. 1984; 25: 201-208PubMed Google Scholar, 8Torjesen P.A. Bjoro T. Ostberg B.C. Haug E. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1988; 56: 107-114Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar, 9Imai A. Gershengorn M.C. J. Biol. Chem. 1985; 260: 10536-10540Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), whereas in others (6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar, 7Perlman J.H. Gershengorn M.C. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 2679-2686Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar), the rate of total inositol phosphate accumulation has been measured at different times after TRH has been administered to metabolically labeled cells. In other reports (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 3Gershengorn M.C. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1986; 48: 515-526Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 4Anderson L. Alexander C.L. Faccenda E. Eidne K.A. Biochem. J. 1995; 311: 385-392Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar,10Akerman S.N. Zorec R. Cheek T.R. Moreton R.B. Berridge M.J. Mason W.T. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 475-488Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar, 11Villalobos C. Garcia-Sancho J. Pfluegers Arch. Eur. J. Physiol. 1995; 430: 923-935Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar), only the [Ca2+] i response has been followed. There is little information about the IP3response to repetitive applications of TRH, although it is well documented that the [Ca2+] i response to high doses of TRH requires 5–20 min to recover (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar). It is unclear whether the refractory period results from desensitization of the receptor or exhaustion of calcium pools. In this study, we have carried out a detailed analysis of desensitization of the TRH response. To establish the molecular basis for desensitization, we have monitored IP3 mass, [Ca2+] i, the size of the intracellular Ca2+ pool, and the responsiveness to other Ca2+-mobilizing hormones in the continued presence of TRH and following the withdrawal and re-administration of TRH. We show that the TRH response undergoes profound desensitization over time and that the receptor is desensitized and unable to stimulate IP3production after TRH is withdrawn. The rate-limiting step in the recovery of the [Ca2+] i response to TRH is refilling of the intracellular Ca2+ pools. Hanks' balanced salt solution (HBSS) was purchased from Life Technologies, Inc. Thrombin, carbachol, endothelin, trichlorotrifluoroethane, and trioctylamine were purchased from Sigma. [3H]TRH, [3H](N 3-methyl-His2)TRH, and kits for the detection of IP3 were from NEN Life Science Products. Fura-2/AM and BAPTA were from Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR), TRH and ionomycin from Calbiochem, cyclosporin from Sandoz Pharmaceuticals (East Hanover, NJ), and (N 3methyl-His2)TRH from Bachem (Philadelphia, PA). A HEK293 cell line stably expressing the wild-type mouse TRH receptor (301 cells) has been described previously (12Shupnik M.A. Weck J. Hinkle P.M. Mol. Endocrinol. 1996; 10: 90-99PubMed Google Scholar). Cells were grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 5% fetal bovine serum as monolayer cultures at 37 °C in a humidified 95% air and 5% CO2environment. Ca2+imaging was carried out essentially as described by Nelson and Hinkle (13Nelson E.J. Hinkle P.M. Endocrinology. 1994; 135: 1084-1092Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar). All Ca2+ measurements were performed on cells in HBSS buffered to pH 7.4 with 15 mm HEPES. Cells plated on coverslips were loaded with 4 μm Fura-2/AM, 0.1% bovine serum albumin, and 1 μg/ml cyclosporin A in HBSS at room temperature for 50–60 min. The coverslip was washed and put into a Sykes-Moore chamber on a Nikon inverted microscope on a heated stage at 37 °C. The chamber was perfused with medium at 37 °C, and 340/380 nm fluorescence ratios were acquired every 1200 ms. The length of [Ca2+] i imaging experiments was limited by gradual leaking of the Fura-2; similar difficulties were encountered with Fura-2/PE (data not shown). To estimate the size of the intracellular Ca2+ pool, 1.5 mmBAPTA was added to the medium to chelate extracellular Ca2+30–60 s before 500 nm ionomycin was added. The increase in [Ca2+] i stimulated by ionomycin was used as the measure of pool size. Ionomycin (500 nm) completely eliminated the TRH-induced increase in [Ca2+] i measured 2.5 min later, indicating that the IP3-releasable pool was completely empty. Conversely, pretreatment of cells with 1 μm TRH for 10 min almost eliminated subsequent ionomycin-induced Ca2+ release. Ionomycin did not increase [Ca2+] i in cells that had been pretreated with thapsigargin, whether extracellular Ca2+ was present or not, indicating that extracellular Ca2+ entry was minimal. Cells plated in 35-mm dishes were rinsed twice with HBSS and incubated at 37 °C with or without hormone as described below. At the end of the treatment, the medium was aspirated; 0.8 ml of 20% ice-cold trichloroacetic acid was added; and the dish was put on ice immediately. Cells were scraped off the dish, transferred to an Eppendorf tube, and pelleted at 12,000 × g for 1 min at room temperature. The supernatant was extracted with 2 volumes of trichlorotrifluoroethane/trioctylamine (3:1), and the aqueous phase was saved. The radioreceptor assay was performed according to the manufacturer's instructions, except that the reaction mixture was filtered through Whatman GF/C paper from NEN Life Science Products. Cells plated in 35-mm dishes were washed twice with HBSS and incubated at 37 °C in buffer containing [3H]TRH or [3H](N 3-methyl-His2)TRH with or without a 1000-fold molar excess of unlabeled hormone. Cells were then washed three times with HBSS. The 301 cell line expresses ∼200,000 TRH receptors/cell, with an apparent K d of 10 nm (12Shupnik M.A. Weck J. Hinkle P.M. Mol. Endocrinol. 1996; 10: 90-99PubMed Google Scholar). [Ca2+] i was monitored in single 301 cells loaded with Fura-2. TRH stimulation produced a biphasic increase in [Ca2+] i (Fig.1), with an early transient peak and a later maintained phase. The initial [Ca2+] i spike was abolished by thapsigargin treatment, indicating that the Ca2+ came from an intracellular pool, and the sustained [Ca2+] i increase quickly subsided after the addition of the extracellular Ca2+ chelator BAPTA, indicating that it depended on the influx of extracellular Ca2+. The amplitude of the [Ca2+] i spike depended on TRH concentration, reaching an apparent maximum at 1 nm (Fig. 1 and Table I). The [Ca2+] i response occurred earlier and more synchronously, and the upstroke of the response was steeper at higher doses of TRH (Table I).Table IConcentration dependence of TRH-mediated [Ca2+]iresponsesPeak increase in [Ca2+] i (340/380 nm ratio)LagRate of [Ca2+] i risessTRH 0.1 nm1.22 ± 0.1310.4 ± 0.410.9 ± 0.31 nm5.39 ± 0.545.5 ± 0.130.7 ± 0.110 nm4.13 ± 0.321.9 ± 0.060.2 ± 0.11000 nm5.02 ± 0.37—1-a—, Responses complete within time resolution of the system.—301 cells were loaded with Fura-2 and treated with TRH. Single cell [Ca2+] i responses were recorded in experiments like those shown in Fig. 1. Values represent the means ± S.E. of 16–30 cells measured in experiments replicated 2–12 times. The peak increase in [Ca2+] i is defined as the difference between the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratios just before and the peak following TRH addition. The lag is defined as the time between the addition of TRH and the point where the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratio reached half of the peak value. The rate of [Ca2+] i rise is defined as the time between the start of the upstroke in the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratio and the point halfway to the peak.1-a —, Responses complete within time resolution of the system. Open table in a new tab 301 cells were loaded with Fura-2 and treated with TRH. Single cell [Ca2+] i responses were recorded in experiments like those shown in Fig. 1. Values represent the means ± S.E. of 16–30 cells measured in experiments replicated 2–12 times. The peak increase in [Ca2+] i is defined as the difference between the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratios just before and the peak following TRH addition. The lag is defined as the time between the addition of TRH and the point where the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratio reached half of the peak value. The rate of [Ca2+] i rise is defined as the time between the start of the upstroke in the 340/380 nm fluorescence ratio and the point halfway to the peak. The intracellular concentration of IP3 was measured in 301 cells at different times after the addition of TRH. The TRH-stimulated increase in IP3 was also biphasic and strongly concentration-dependent (Fig.2). The peak concentration of IP3 occurred within 10 s at TRH concentrations of 10 nm or higher, and IP3 increased ∼15-fold at 1 μm TRH. In contrast to the [Ca2+] i response, the IP3 response increased with TRH concentrations between 10 and 1000 nm, the highest dose tested. The IP3 concentration dropped rapidly within 1 min of TRH addition, but remained at more than twice the basal level for at least 10 min. At 1 nm, TRH caused no more than a 70% increase in the overall IP3 concentration at times from 2 s to 10 min, and this increase was not highly significant (p = 0.07), even though the peak [Ca2+] i response was essentially maximal under these conditions. The concentration dependence of the [Ca2+] i and IP3 responses is shown in Fig. 3.Figure 3Concentration dependence of TRH-mediated increases in [Ca2+] i and IP3 in 301 cells. The peak increases in [Ca2+] i and IP3, measured in experiments like those shown in Figs. 1and 2, are shown. [Ca2+] i values represent the means ± S.E. of 16–20 cells from a single experiment and are representative of the results of 2–10 experiments. Errors in the IP3 measurements were within symbol size.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Desensitization of the TRH response was measured by exposing cells to TRH, washing to remove free hormone, and then incubating the cells in hormone-free medium for various times before reintroducing TRH and measuring IP3, [Ca2+] i, and the intracellular Ca2+ pool size. Cells were first incubated with 1 μm TRH for 10 s or 10 min or with 1 nm TRH for 10 min. The amplitude of the initial [Ca2+] i spike was the same in all three protocols, but the ability of the cell to respond to a subsequent challenge with TRH depended on both the dose and the duration of the first exposure. When cells were incubated with 1 μm TRH for either 10 s or 10 min, washed, and immediately challenged again with TRH, there was almost no IP3 response (Fig.4). Cells gradually recovered the ability to respond to TRH and gave a full IP3 response by 40 min. The t½ for recovery was ∼5 min after an initial 10-s incubation with TRH versus ∼10 min after an initial 10-min incubation. Since the K d for TRH is 10 nm, 1 nm TRH occupies only ∼10% of receptors at equilibrium. Nonetheless, incubation with 1 nm TRH for 10 min (Fig. 4) significantly desensitized the IP3 response to a subsequent challenge with 1 μm TRH. Immediately after withdrawal of 1 nm TRH, 1 μm TRH increased IP3 to only 63% of the IP3 level reached in naive cells. The ability of the cell to respond to a second challenge with TRH may be limited by how fast bound TRH dissociates from receptors following the first exposure to agonist. To measure ligand dissociation rates, cells were incubated with 1 μm [3H]TRH for either 10 s or 10 min and washed, and specifically bound [3H]TRH was followed over time (Fig. 5, left panel). The amount of [3H]TRH bound was the same after 10 s or 10 min of incubation, indicating that receptors were essentially saturated in both protocols. However, [3H]TRH dissociated faster from receptors after the 10-s incubation than after 10 min. An additional assay was used to measure the number of unoccupied receptors on the cell surface at various times after cells had been incubated with TRH and then washed (Fig. 5, right panel). Again, TRH receptors became available more rapidly when the initial incubation was brief. These data agree with previous findings in pituitary cells (14Hinkle P.M. Kinsella P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1982; 257: 5462-5470Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) and reflect the fact that the TRH-receptor complex internalizes extensively in 10 min in 301 cells. 2R. Yu and P. M. Hinkle, unpublished observations. Incubation of 301 cells with 1 μm TRH for 10 min completely abolished the [Ca2+] i response to a second exposure to 1 μm TRH (Fig. 6). The [Ca2+] i response recovered partially after 5 min, but remained at only 25% of the control response at 25 min, even though the IP3 response was almost fully recovered at this point. When cells were initially exposed to 1 μm TRH for 10 s, the ability of the cells to mount an [Ca2+] i response to 1 μm TRH was half of the control 2 min after washing and nearly 100% after 10 min (Fig. 6). Preincubation with 1 nm TRH for 10 min also prevented an [Ca2+] i response to 1 μm TRH immediately after washing (Fig. 6), even though the IP3 response was quite large. The [Ca2+] i response recovered to ∼70% of the control response by 10 min. The size of the intracellular Ca2+ pool was estimated by adding BAPTA to chelate extracellular Ca2+ and then adding 500 nm ionomycin to dump intracellular Ca2+ stores. The intracellular Ca2+ pool was almost completely depleted by 1 μm TRH within 1 min (Figs. 7 and8). The pool was also fully depleted by 1 nm TRH, but in this case, only after 10 min (Fig. 7). Ca2+ pools refilled slowly, such that they were just 25% replenished after 10–25 min in cells that had been exposed to TRH for 10 min (Fig. 8). Refilling was faster and more complete in cells that had been exposed to 1 μm TRH for only 10 s (Fig. 8). Interestingly, the [Ca2+] i response to TRH recovered before Ca2+ pools had refilled, indicating that partially full stores were adequate for a maximal response.Figure 8Intracellular Ca2+ pool refilling after TRH treatment. 301 cells were loaded with Fura-2 and treated with or without TRH at 37 °C as follows: 1 μm TRH for 10 min, 1 nm TRH for 10 min, or 1 μm TRH for 10 s. At the end of this treatment, the chamber was perfused with hormone-free medium. At intervals from 0 to 25 min, the intracellular Ca2+ pool size was measured as described under “Experimental Procedures.” Pool size is expressed relative to the Ca2+ pool in control cells determined in the same experiment. Values shown are the means ± S.E. of 16–20 cells in each experiment and are representative of multiple experiments; where not visible, errors fell within symbol size.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Because dye leakage became a problem in long experiments, we also measured Ca2+ pool sizes after loading with Fura-2/AM during the refilling period. In this protocol, Ca2+ pools seemed to recover fully within 1 h after cells had been incubated with 1 μm TRH for 10 min and washed. Ca2+pool sizes, determined as the increase in 340/380 nm fluorescence ratios caused by ionomycin, were 2.6 ± 0.2 (n = 26) in control cells and 2.8 ± 0.2 (n = 56) and 3.2 ± 0.7 (n = 24) 1 and 2 h after removal of TRH, respectively. The results described above imply that following TRH treatment, 301 cells should not be able to increase [Ca2+] i in response to any other agonist until the Ca2+ stores are replenished. Thrombin, endothelin, and carbachol all increase [Ca2+] i in 301 cells, although none of these agonists gives a response as large as TRH (data not shown). When combined into an agonist mixture, thrombin, endothelin, and carbachol stimulated large increases in IP3and [Ca2+] i (Fig. 9and Table II). The IP3response to the combined agonists occurred as quickly as the IP3 response to TRH, but the peak was lower (7.5-versus 15-fold), and the IP3 level fell to base line in 40 s, whereas it remained elevated for at least 10 min in the continued presence of TRH (Fig. 2 and Table II). The peak increase in [Ca2+] i stimulated by the mixture was indistinguishable from that stimulated by TRH (Fig. 9 and TableII).Table IIHeterologous effects of TRH and an agonist mixture[Ca2+] i (340/380 nm ratio)IP3Ca2+pool, (340/380 nm ratio)InitialPeakInitialPeakpmol/mg cell proteinTRH then mixture 0 min, TRH0.13 ± 0.014.83 ± 0.536.70 ± 1.7986.60 ± 0.257.99 ± 0.76 10 min, mixture0.69 ± 0.071.00 ± 0.0820.97 ± 0.0450.49 ± 5.790.25 ± 0.03Mixture then TRH 0 min, mixture0.19 ± 0.015.58 ± 0.536.16 ± 0.1944.87 ± 0.447.99 ± 0.76 10 min, TRH0.21 ± 0.014.66 ± 0.638.03 ± 0.6182.50 ± 5.302.14 ± 0.57In experiments like those shown in Fig. 9, TRH was added to 301 cells, followed 10 min later by the combined agonist mixture, or vice versa. IP3 was measured immediately before and 10 s after the addition of hormones. Ca2+ pool size was measured immediately before the first hormone addition and 10 min later before the second. Values are the means ± S.E. of three dishes for IP3 or of 20–30 cells for [Ca2+] i and Ca2+ pool size. Open table in a new tab In experiments like those shown in Fig. 9, TRH was added to 301 cells, followed 10 min later by the combined agonist mixture, or vice versa. IP3 was measured immediately before and 10 s after the addition of hormones. Ca2+ pool size was measured immediately before the first hormone addition and 10 min later before the second. Values are the means ± S.E. of three dishes for IP3 or of 20–30 cells for [Ca2+] i and Ca2+ pool size. As predicted, when cells were first exposed to 1 μm TRH for 10 min and then to the mixture, the combined agonists did not increase [Ca2+] i substantially, although they caused an IP3 increase that was close to that in untreated cells (Fig. 9 and Table II). These results support the idea that Ca2+ pool depletion, not impaired IP3generation, prevents [Ca2+] i responses to other hormones. The converse was not true. When cells were preincubated with the mixture for 10 min, they could still respond to TRH with a normal elevation of [Ca2+] i, even though the Ca2+ pool was substantially reduced by the agonist mixture (Fig. 9 and Table II). These results again suggest that a full [Ca2+] i response requires only a partly full intracellular Ca2+ pool. The IP3 response to TRH, administered after the combined agonists, was close to that of control cells (Table II). In this report, we have demonstrated that the TRH response undergoes profound desensitization. Restoration of the [Ca2+] i response to TRH involves multiple steps, including ligand dissociation, recovery of receptor 1G protein 1 phospholipase C coupling, and intracellular Ca2+ pool replenishment. The characteristics of the IP3 response measured in 301 cells expressing the TRH receptor closely resemble those reported previously for cell lines expressing an endogenous TRH receptor (5Drummond A.H. Bushfield M. Macphee C.H. Mol. Pharmacol. 1984; 25: 201-208PubMed Google Scholar, 8Torjesen P.A. Bjoro T. Ostberg B.C. Haug E. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1988; 56: 107-114Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar, 9Imai A. Gershengorn M.C. J. Biol. Chem. 1985; 260: 10536-10540Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 15Ramsdell J.S. Tashjian Jr., A.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1986; 261: 5301-5306Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). TRH stimulates a rapid and transient increase in IP3 mass, which reaches a peak between 5 and 15 s (Fig. 2). In 301 cells, the dose dependence of the IP3 and [Ca2+] i responses to TRH was very different. A low dose of TRH (1 nm) produced an essentially maximal peak of [Ca2+] i, but only a small increase in IP3. A similar although less pronounced discrepancy in the dose-response curves for IP3 and [Ca2+] i has been reported previously for pituitary cells (3Gershengorn M.C. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1986; 48: 515-526Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 16Drummond A.H. J. Exp. Biol. 1986; 124: 337-358PubMed Google Scholar, 17Gershengorn M.C. Heinflink M. Nussenzveig D.R. Hinkle P.M. Falck-Pedersen E. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 6779-6783Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), and the activity of phospholipase C has been reported to increase with TRH doses up to 1–10 μmin isolated membranes (18Martin T.F. Lucas D.O. Bajjalieh S.M. Kowalchyk J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1986; 261: 2918-2927Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Rapid kinetic studies have shown that the [Ca2+] i peak precedes the IP3 peak (19Tashjian Jr., A.H. Heslop J.P. Berridge M.J. Biochem. J. 1987; 243: 305-308Crossref PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar). These findings all indicate that a very small increase in the average IP3 concentration is sufficient to trigger a large increase in [Ca2+] i. There are a number of possible explanations. Single cell Ca2+ imaging has shown that there is a highly variable delay between the addition of a low dose of TRH and the onset of the [Ca2+] i rise (Table I) (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 10Akerman S.N. Zorec R. Cheek T.R. Moreton R.B. Berridge M.J. Mason W.T. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 475-488Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar). If there is a similar asynchrony in the TRH-mediated increase in IP3, then the average IP3 value will seriously underestimate the amplitude of a short-lived increase in IP3 in individual cells. High concentrations of TRH stimulate a rapid and highly synchronous increase in [Ca2+] i (Table I) (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 13Nelson E.J. Hinkle P.M. Endocrinology. 1994; 135: 1084-1092Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar). Imaging studies have provided strong evidence for spatial heterogeneity in intracellular Ca2+ release (20Berridge M.J. Dupont G. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1994; 6: 267-274Crossref PubMed Scopus (199) Google Scholar), and biochemical evidence supports the existence of heterogeneous Ca2+ stores in pituitary cells responsive to TRH (21Koshiyama H. Tashjian Jr., A.H. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1991; 177: 551-558Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar). The small amount of IP3 generated by low concentrations of TRH may release Ca2+ from stores near the plasma membrane, and the resultant increase in [Ca2+] i may sensitize IP3 receptors (1Berridge M.J. Nature. 1993; 361: 315-325Crossref PubMed Scopus (6188) Google Scholar, 20Berridge M.J. Dupont G. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1994; 6: 267-274Crossref PubMed Scopus (199) Google Scholar) or otherwise contribute to Ca2+ release as it spreads through the cell. At the other extreme of the dose-response relationship, very high concentrations of TRH produced much higher levels of IP3than necessary for a maximal [Ca2+] i spike. Very high levels of IP3 are likely to alter the kinetics of pool refilling, even though they do not increase the size of the initial [Ca2+] i spike. In addition, the peak Ca2+ concentration in the vicinity of the secretory granules may increase as the agonist dose is raised, even though the average Ca2+ concentration reported by fluorescent indicators does not. Desensitization is defined as a diminishing response in the continued presence of an agonist or a diminished response to a subsequent exposure to an agonist. In this study, we documented both of these forms of desensitization. In the continued presence of TRH, IP3 increased 15-fold and then fell rapidly to a plateau 1.5–3 times the basal level. This IP3 response is typical of many receptors coupled to Gq (22Bohm S.K. Grady E.F. Bunnett N.W. Biochem. J. 1997; 322: 1-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (466) Google Scholar, 23Fisher S.K. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1995; 288: 231-250Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar, 24Lohse M.J. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1993; 1179: 171-188Crossref PubMed Scopus (402) Google Scholar, 25Wojcikiewicz R.J. Tobin A.B. Nahorski S.R. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 1993; 14: 279-285Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar). Gershengorn and co-workers found that the rate of total inositol phosphate production, measured over 30 min, decreases with time of exposure to TRH in pituitary cells (7Perlman J.H. Gershengorn M.C. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 2679-2686Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar) and in several other cell types (6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar), but not in HEK293 cells (6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar). The reason for the discrepancy is not known, but it may be because the transient IP3 response to TRH was obscured in measurements done over a 30-min period or because the density of receptors was much greater when they were introduced by adenovirus-mediated gene transfer (6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar) rather than stable transfection, as in our work. In principle, IP3 concentrations could rise and then fall for several reasons. 1) Metabolism of IP3 may be accelerated. 2) Substrate (phosphatidylinositol (4,5)bisphosphate) may be depleted. 3) Downstream kinases may turn off phospholipase C. 4) The receptor/G protein/phospholipase signal pathway may become uncoupled. Since TRH causes a biphasic increase in diacylglycerol as well as IP3 and a burst followed by a gradual increase in total inositol phosphates (16Drummond A.H. J. Exp. Biol. 1986; 124: 337-358PubMed Google Scholar), the activity of phospholipase C must change over time, not the metabolism of IP3. The concentration of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)bisphosphate declines after TRH is added, but quickly recovers (26Rebecchi M.J. Gershengorn M.C. Biochem. J. 1983; 216: 287-294Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar), making substrate exhaustion unlikely. Downstream kinases do not turn off phospholipase C generally because TRH caused little reduction in the IP3 response to other Gq-coupled receptors. Activation of protein kinase C with phorbol esters does decrease the subsequent phospholipase C response to TRH (6Falck-Pedersen E. Heinflink M. Alvira M. Nussenzveig D.R. Gershengorn M.C. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994; 45: 684-689PubMed Google Scholar, 7Perlman J.H. Gershengorn M.C. Endocrinology. 1991; 129: 2679-2686Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar, 16Drummond A.H. J. Exp. Biol. 1986; 124: 337-358PubMed Google Scholar), but this level of regulation is probably exerted later. The simplest explanation is that the TRH receptor became uncoupled. It is not clear how the TRH receptor/G protein/phospholipase C cascade becomes uncoupled. Phospholipase C has GAP (GTPase-activating protein) activity (27Berstein G. Blank J.L. Jhon D.Y. Exton J.H. Rhee S.G. Ross E.M. Cell. 1992; 70: 411-418Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (349) Google Scholar) that may account for the rapid turnoff of G protein activation. However, since other agonists activated phospholipase C normally when the TRH response was uncoupled, it is necessary to postulate that the G proteins and phospholipase C coupled to the TRH receptor are spatially restricted if the GAP activity of the effector is responsible. An alternative, or additional, mechanism may involve uncoupling of the receptor from the G protein, possibly as a result of phosphorylation by a G protein-coupled receptor kinase or other downstream kinase (28Freedman N.J. Lefkowitz R.J. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 1996; 51: 319-351PubMed Google Scholar). There is no evidence about whether the TRH receptor is phosphorylated by G protein-coupled receptor kinases or other kinases (28Freedman N.J. Lefkowitz R.J. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 1996; 51: 319-351PubMed Google Scholar), but we have shown that a truncated form of the TRH receptor, which lacks probable G protein-coupled receptor kinase phosphorylation sites, does not undergo this form of desensitization effectively.2 When TRH was withdrawn from the medium, a second form of desensitization was observed, whereby the cell was refractory to re-addition of TRH for up to 30 min. The pattern of recovery is shown schematically in Fig. 10. Cells first recovered the ability to increase IP3, but elevated IP3 did not increase [Ca2+] i because intracellular Ca2+ pools were almost completely depleted. The [Ca2+] i response recovered ∼10 min behind the IP3 response and was maximal when Ca2+pools were partially full. The Ca2+ pool eventually recovered fully. The consequence of depleted Ca2+ pools was heterologous desensitization of the [Ca2+] i response. Although other agonists were able to evoke a nearly normal increase in IP3after TRH, they could not increase [Ca2+] i because the intracellular Ca2+ pool was empty. Hormone dissociation is a necessary first step before a previously occupied receptor can be activated again. Ligand dissociation is not likely to be the only factor in desensitization of the IP3response, however. There was a sizable plasma membrane receptor pool available for activation shortly after a 10-s exposure to 1 μm TRH, but TRH could not stimulate phospholipase C activity effectively. A cell-surface receptor pool of similar size was present 25 min after exposure to 1 μm TRH for 10 min, and in this case, TRH could generate a nearly maximal IP3response. Desensitization of the [Ca2+] i response to agonists has been documented in many other studies (22Bohm S.K. Grady E.F. Bunnett N.W. Biochem. J. 1997; 322: 1-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (466) Google Scholar, 23Fisher S.K. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1995; 288: 231-250Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar, 24Lohse M.J. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1993; 1179: 171-188Crossref PubMed Scopus (402) Google Scholar, 25Wojcikiewicz R.J. Tobin A.B. Nahorski S.R. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 1993; 14: 279-285Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar). Andersonet al. (4Anderson L. Alexander C.L. Faccenda E. Eidne K.A. Biochem. J. 1995; 311: 385-392Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar) expressed rat and human TRH receptors in HEK293 cells and found that the [Ca2+] i response mediated by the receptors was desensitized by high concentrations of TRH and did not recover at all, even in the face of normal Ca2+ pool refilling. The difference between previous results and ours may be due to the much higher concentration of TRH receptors in the transfected HEK293 cells used by Anderson et al. (4Anderson L. Alexander C.L. Faccenda E. Eidne K.A. Biochem. J. 1995; 311: 385-392Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar). In GH-cells and primary pituitary cell cultures, pool refilling does not seem to occur until TRH is withdrawn and then requires as long as 20 min (2Hinkle P.M. Nelson E.J. Ashworth R. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1996; 7: 370-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar). Our study highlights the importance of regulation of the Ca2+ pool as a means of desensitizing receptor-mediated [Ca2+] i responses. Pool replenishment was the rate-limiting step in recovery of the TRH response in 301 cells. The other agonists tested here did not deplete Ca2+ pools as thoroughly as TRH, even though the IP3 responses were large. One of the reasons that TRH depletes the Ca2+ pool so thoroughly is that it stimulates efflux of Ca2+ from the cytoplasm, apparently by activating a plasma membrane Ca2+pump (29Nelson E.J. Hinkle P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 30854-30860Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Nonetheless, all methods used to quantitate Ca2+pool sizes are indirect. If TRH treatment changes cytoplasmic Ca2+ buffering capacity or Ca2+ reuptake, then the increase in [Ca2+] i caused by ionomycin, used here to estimate pool size, might be altered (30Wagner K.A. Yacono P.W. Golan D.E. Tashjian Jr., A.H. Biochem. J. 1993; 292: 175-182Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar), as might any localized release of Ca2+ from specialized domains on the endoplasmic reticulum membrane (31Bootman M.D. Berridge M.J. Cell. 1995; 83: 675-678Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (393) Google Scholar, 32Parker I. Yao Y. Ciba Found. Symp. 1995; 188: 50-60PubMed Google Scholar). In summary, we have shown that the signal transduction pathway to TRH becomes profoundly desensitized at multiple levels. In 301 cells, the IP3 response to TRH undergoes homologous desensitization, but the [Ca2+] i response undergoes heterologous desensitization because the TRH-treated cell cannot respond to any Ca2+-mobilizing agonist until pool refilling has occurred. Additional study is needed to identify the molecular mechanisms responsible for these complex levels of desensitization." @default.
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