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• W2003449384 abstract "Women Health Workers and the Color Line in the Japanese American “Relocation Centers” of World War II Susan L. Smith* (bio) In 1941 Velma Kessel earned $80 per month, plus room, board, and laundry services, at the Yellowstone County Hospital. A graduate of the Billings Deaconess Hospital in Montana, Kessel led a carefree life as a young, single registered nurse. “Our biggest concern was getting a date for Saturday night, wondering where the country dance would be held and listening to musicians such as Benny Goodman,” she explained. 1 [End Page 585] Then war came, and everything changed. Upon learning that the county hospital was closing, Kessel applied for a position at the Heart Mountain Relocation Center near Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. She wrote: “My credentials were checked by government officials and several local people were questioned about my character. Then I was finger-printed, and finally accepted for the position of Registered Nurse, Senior Staff.” 2 She was hired at a salary of $150 per month, nearly twice her previous pay. Her job was in the camp’s hospital, which one report called “the best equipped, largest and most modern hospital in the state of Wyoming.” 3 Racial politics had a profound impact on women health workers’ experiences during wartime. Kessel was a white American, and therefore her work at Heart Mountain hospital was voluntary and well paid. In contrast, the labor of most Japanese Americans at Heart Mountain hospital, or one of the other camp hospitals, was more or less involuntary and virtually unpaid. World War II marked the nadir in Japanese American history. While it brought white nurses like Kessel new employment options, it forced Japanese American nurses and other health-care workers to join the nearly 120,000 people incarcerated in what the federal government called “relocation centers” (often later referred to as “internment camps” or “concentration camps”). 4 The bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to war between the United States and Japan, and hostility against Japanese Americans. Politicians and the press argued for restrictions against the Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. Within a few months the federal government had forced them into ten camps, which ranged in population from fewer than eight thousand to nearly twenty thousand. The newly established War Relocation Authority (WRA) was responsible for the welfare of the “Issei” (immigrant generation) and the “Nisei” (American-born generation) who were placed in these prison-like camps. From 1942 to 1945 the [End Page 586] West Coast Japanese American population faced “humiliating segregation” by the U.S. government within America’s borders. 5 As an African American writer in The Crisis, the journal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), argued at the time, “the barbarous treatment of these Americans is the result of the color line.” 6 The camps provide a unique context in which to examine the history of women health workers, racial politics, and the wartime state. Historians have long debated the extent to which World War II temporarily or permanently increased women’s employment opportunities. 7 Certainly, women predominated among the health-care personnel working within the camps: much like the health-care system at the time (and still today), nurses and nurses’ aides were the main care providers. However, the camps were unusual in that very few of the women health workers were white—health-care providers practiced in an environment that reproduced, and occasionally subverted, the racial politics of life outside the camps. By focusing in this essay on health work and the color line, I will demonstrate that the relocation centers expanded employment opportunities for Nisei women and white women, while limiting opportunities for Issei women and African American women. World War II was full of ironies for Japanese Americans. Within the barbed-wire boundaries of each WRA camp, they encountered not only repressive warfare state action but also public welfare provision. The federal government envisioned each camp as a small model city—a microcosm of the good society. The government provided basic necessities in the camps in order to meet the minimum needs of each so-called Japanese colony. In constructing places of confinement, the government nonetheless..." @default.
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• W2003449384 title "Women Health Workers and the Color Line in the Japanese American &quot;Relocation Centers&quot; of World War II" @default.
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