FRINK Linked Data Fragments server

Matches in SemOpenAlex for { <https://semopenalex.org/work/W2006804742> ?p ?o ?g. }

• W2006804742 endingPage "351" @default.
• W2006804742 startingPage "346" @default.
• W2006804742 abstract "It has been estimated that 173,770 new lung cancers will be diagnosed in the USA in 2004, and 80,600 (46.3%) will be diagnosed in women. It has also been estimated that 68,510 women will die of lung cancer in 2004, which represents a 4.2% increase from 2001, when lung cancer took the lives of 65,606 women. Lung cancer currently accounts for 12.7% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States and for 28.5% of all cancer deaths.1Jemal A. Tiwari R.C. Murray T. Ghafoor A. Samuels A. Ward E et al.Cancer statistics, 2004.CA Cancer J Clin. 2004; 54: 8-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (3824) Google Scholar In 1987, lung cancer surpassed breast cancer to become the leading cause of cancer death among women. In fact, lung cancer now kills more women annually than breast, uterine, and ovarian cancers combined. Unfortunately, women have come a long way, but not along a good path. Between 1950 and 1994, female lung cancer mortality increased 500%, from 3% to 22%.2Ernster V. The epidemiology of lung cancer in women.Ann Epidemiol. 1994; 82: 1203-1205Google Scholar In 1965, approximately 30,000 US women died of 10 categories of tobacco-related illnesses, but by 1985 that figure had risen to 106,000.3Davis RM. Women and smoking in the United States: how lung cancer became an “equal opportunity” disease. Presented at the 7th World Conference on Tobacco and Health, Perth, Australia, April, 1990.Google Scholar That tobacco-related diseases including lung cancer are an increasingly major health problem for women is undeniable.See related editorials on pages 345 and 352. See related editorials on pages 345 and 352. The lung cancer epidemic began later among women than among men, in large part because of differences in cigarette smoking patterns. Smoking prevalence among women was 18.1% in 1935, peaked at 33.3% in 1965, and stayed at that level through the late 1970s. Since that time, the rate has declined slowly to its current level of 23.5%.4Fiore M.C. Novotny T.E. Pierce J.P. Hatziandreu E.J. Patel K.M. Davis R.M. Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States: the changing influence of gender and race.JAMA. 1989; 261: 49-55Crossref PubMed Scopus (347) Google Scholar Unfortunately, women are beginning to smoke at a younger age, owing in large part to successful tobacco advertising campaigns directed toward both adolescents and women. The smoking rate among female high school students, for example, increased from 17.9% in 1991 to 23.5% in 1997 and had climbed to 27.7% by 2001.5Centers for Disease Control and PreventionTrends in cigarette smoking among high school students—United States, 1991-2001.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002; 51: 409-412PubMed Google Scholar Because of the latency between exposure to tobacco and tobacco smoke carcinogens and the development of lung cancer, the ill effects of tobacco will be with us for many decades. Lung cancer incidence among men is declining at a faster rate than among women, chiefly because of the decrease in smoking prevalence among men. In the last decade, the incidence of lung cancer among men declined by 2.2% from the previous decade, whereas the incidence of lung cancer among women increased by 0.5% during the same time period. Table 1 illustrates the trends in lung cancer incidence during the last 3 decades.TABLE 1Trends in lung cancer incidence, United StatesDecadeMenWomen1973–1980+2.2%+6.3%1981–1990−0.2%+3.4%1991–1999−2.2%+0.5% Open table in a new tab More than 85% of all patients with lung cancer have a cigarette smoking history, yet only 20% of smokers acquire lung cancer. This suggests that factors other than smoking predispose an individual toward development of lung cancer. Factors that have been implicated include sex, genetic alterations, second-hand smoke, occupational exposure (eg, asbestos), diet, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and previous tobacco-associated cancer. Lung cancer incidence among women exceeds that expected from smoking prevalence alone, which raises the question of women's increased susceptibility to this disease.6Brownson R.C. Chang J.C. Davis J.R. Gender and histologic variations in smoking-related risk of lung cancer.Epidemiology. 1992; 3: 61-64Crossref PubMed Scopus (167) Google Scholar Several studies have suggested that women may be more susceptible than men to the ill effects of the carcinogens in tobacco and tobacco smoke.6Brownson R.C. Chang J.C. Davis J.R. Gender and histologic variations in smoking-related risk of lung cancer.Epidemiology. 1992; 3: 61-64Crossref PubMed Scopus (167) Google Scholar, 7Kabat G.C. Aspects of the epidemiology of lung cancer in smokers and nonsmokers in the United States.Lung Cancer. 1996; 15: 1-20Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar, 8Zang E.A. Wynder E.L. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88: 183-192Crossref PubMed Scopus (579) Google Scholar, 9Risch H.A. Howe G.R. Jain M. Burch J.D. Holowaty E.J. Miller A.B. Are female smokers at higher risk for lung cancer than male smokers? A case-control analysis by histologic type.Am J Epidemiol. 1993; 138: 281-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar, 10Harris R.E. Zang E.A. Anderson J.I. Wynder E.L. Race and sex differences in lung cancer risk associated with cigarette smoking.Int J Epidemiol. 1993; 22: 592-599Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar, 11Osann K.E. Anton-Culver H. Kurosaki T. Taylor T. Sex differences in lung cancer risk associated with cigarette smoking.Int J Cancer. 1993; 54: 44-48Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar Women with lung cancer have been consistently shown to (1) have smoked less on average (31 vs 52 pack-years), (2) be younger, (3) be 2 to 3 times more likely to have never smoked, and (4) get adenocarcinoma more often than their male counterparts. Women were also found to have started smoking at a later age, to smoke brands with lower tar content, and to inhale less deeply than men in a study by Zang and Wynder.8Zang E.A. Wynder E.L. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88: 183-192Crossref PubMed Scopus (579) Google Scholar Despite these findings, women had 1.2- to 1.7-fold higher odds of getting lung cancer than men at every level of exposure to cigarette smoke in that study. Although this finding has been confirmed by others,9Risch H.A. Howe G.R. Jain M. Burch J.D. Holowaty E.J. Miller A.B. Are female smokers at higher risk for lung cancer than male smokers? A case-control analysis by histologic type.Am J Epidemiol. 1993; 138: 281-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar it has not been corroborated by all studies.12Prescott E. Osler M. Hein H.O. Borch-Johnsen K. Lange P. Schnohr P et al.Gender and smoking-related risk of lung cancer. The Copenhagen Center for Prospective Population Studies.Epidemiology. 1998; 9: 79-83Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 13Kreuzer M. Boffetta P. Whitley E. Ahrens W. Gaborieau V. Heinrich J et al.Gender differences in lung cancer risk by smoking: a multicenter case-control study in Germany and Italy.Br J Cancer. 2000; 82: 227-233Crossref PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar Reasons offered to help explain these findings include (1) differences in nicotine metabolism, (2) differences in the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system that activates and detoxifies tobacco and tobacco smoke carcinogens, (3) differences in DNA adduct levels and an individual's ability to repair damaged DNA, and (4) hormonal effects. It has been suggested that women have reduced plasma clearance of nicotine and its metabolites and that these products may be the precursors of tobacco-specific carcinogens.14Beckett A.H. Gorrod J.W. Jenner P. The effect of smoking on nicotine metabolism in vivo in man.J Pharm Pharmacol. 1971; 23: 62S-70SCrossref PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar, 15Hecht S.S. Hoffmann D. The relevance of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in human cancer.Cancer Surv. 1989; 8: 273-294PubMed Google Scholar It has also been hypothesized that an individual's ability to activate and detoxify tobacco and tobacco smoke carcinogens and to repair damaged DNA modulates his or her risk of lung cancer.16Nakachi K. Imai K. Hayashi S. Kawajiri K. Polymorphisms of the CYP1A1 and glutathione S-transferase genes associated with susceptibility to lung cancer in relation to cigarette dose in Japanese population.Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 2994-2999PubMed Google Scholar The schema in Figure 1, adapted from Hecht,17Hecht S.S. Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91: 1194-1210Crossref PubMed Scopus (1506) Google Scholar has been proposed to help explain the reasons for differences in lung cancer susceptibility. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitrosamines are both present in tobacco smoke and exert their effects through both gene mutations and the formation of DNA adducts in target tissues such as the lung.18Heminki K. DNA adducts, mutations and cancer.Carcinogenesis. 1993; 14: 2007-2012Crossref PubMed Scopus (235) Google Scholar, 19Rom W.N. Hay J.G. Lee T.C. Jiang Y. Tchou-Wong K.M. Molecular and genetic aspects of lung cancer.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000; 161: 1355-1367Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar It has been shown that women with lung cancer have gene polymorphisms in the cytochrome P-450 enzymes (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4) that result in an increased level of DNA adducts and thus a decreased ability to detoxify tobacco carcinogens.20Ryberg D. Hewer A. Phillips D.H. Haugen A. Different susceptibility to smoking induced DNA damage among males and female lung cancer patients.Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 5801-5803PubMed Google Scholar High levels of DNA adducts are believed to play a role in the initiation of carcinogenesis.21Swenberg J.A. Richardson F.C. Boucheron J.A. Dyroff M.C. Relationships between DNA adduct formation and carcinogenesis.Environ Health Perspect. 1985; 62: 5-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar Women with the CYP1A1 mutation had a higher lung cancer risk than men (odds ratio 4.98 vs 1.37). Women with both CYP1A1 and GSTM1 mutations had a higher lung cancer risk than men (odds ratio 6.54 vs 2.36). Furthermore, women with lung cancer had higher incidences of both CYP1A1 and GSTM1 mutations than did women without lung cancer.22Wei Q. Cheng L. Amos C.I. Wang L.E. Guo Z. Hong W.K et al.Repair of tobacco carcinogen-induced DNA adducts and lung cancer risk: a molecular epidemiologic study.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 1764-1772Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar, 23Mollerup S. Ryberg D. Hewer A. Phillips D.H. Haugen A. Sex differences in lung CYP1A1 expression and DNA adduct levels among lung cancer patients.Cancer Res. 1999; 59: 3317-3320PubMed Google Scholar It has been found that DNA adduct levels are higher among women with lung cancer than among their male counterparts after adjustment for smoking dose. This suggests that women are exposed to higher levels of tobacco carcinogens than men and may thus have a higher relative risk than men of tobacco-induced lung cancer.20Ryberg D. Hewer A. Phillips D.H. Haugen A. Different susceptibility to smoking induced DNA damage among males and female lung cancer patients.Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 5801-5803PubMed Google Scholar, 22Wei Q. Cheng L. Amos C.I. Wang L.E. Guo Z. Hong W.K et al.Repair of tobacco carcinogen-induced DNA adducts and lung cancer risk: a molecular epidemiologic study.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 1764-1772Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar, 23Mollerup S. Ryberg D. Hewer A. Phillips D.H. Haugen A. Sex differences in lung CYP1A1 expression and DNA adduct levels among lung cancer patients.Cancer Res. 1999; 59: 3317-3320PubMed Google Scholar A reduced capacity to repair damaged DNA has also been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer, and women have been found to have a lower capacity than men for DNA repair.22Wei Q. Cheng L. Amos C.I. Wang L.E. Guo Z. Hong W.K et al.Repair of tobacco carcinogen-induced DNA adducts and lung cancer risk: a molecular epidemiologic study.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 1764-1772Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar The role of hormones, estrogen in particular, as a risk factor for the development of lung cancer is another area of vigorous investigation. Estrogen is known to be a risk factor for the development of adenocarcinoma of the breast, ovary, and endometrium, and lung adenocarcinoma is known to be more common among women than men. Non–small cell lung cancer lines (both squamous cell and adenocarcinoma) have been found to express estrogen receptors.24Stabile L.P. Davis A.L. Gubish C.T. Hopkins T.M. Luketich J.D. Christie N et al.Human non–small cell lung tumors and cells derived from normal lung express both estrogen receptor alpha and beta and show biological responses to estrogen.Cancer Res. 2002; 62: 2141-2150PubMed Google Scholar, 25Caracta C.F. Powell C. Brody J.S. Estrogen receptor status of lung cancer cell lines.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999; 159 ([abstract]): A204Google Scholar Estrogen may be involved in lung carcinogenesis by activating cell proliferation through an indirect action on lung fibroblasts or by metabolic activation to intermediates that produce DNA adducts and cause oxidative damage.24Stabile L.P. Davis A.L. Gubish C.T. Hopkins T.M. Luketich J.D. Christie N et al.Human non–small cell lung tumors and cells derived from normal lung express both estrogen receptor alpha and beta and show biological responses to estrogen.Cancer Res. 2002; 62: 2141-2150PubMed Google Scholar Further observations that support a role for estrogen in the development of lung adenocarcinoma include the following: (1) Early age (<40 years) at menopause is associated with a decreased risk of lung adenocarcinoma (odds ratio 0.3). (2) Estrogen replacement therapy is associated with an increased risk of lung adenocarcinoma (odds ratio 1.7); however, in that study no adjustment was made for the amount of smoking. (3) A positive interaction of estrogen, smoking, and lung adenocarcinoma has been found (odds ratio 32.4).26Taioli E. Wynder E.L. Endocrine factors and adenocarcinoma of the lung in women.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1994; 86 ([letter]) (869–70)Crossref PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar In addition, Zang and Wynder8Zang E.A. Wynder E.L. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88: 183-192Crossref PubMed Scopus (579) Google Scholar found that women older than 55 years with lung cancer (particularly adenocarcinoma) were nearly twice as likely as younger women with lung cancer to have never smoked. No similar age-related difference was found among men with lung cancer or among female control subjects. There is a higher frequency of p53 tumor suppressor gene mutations among women with non–small cell lung cancer than among men with non–small cell lung cancer. There is also a higher DNA adduct level in normal lung tissue in women with lung cancer, which supports the contention that p53 mutations might be responsible in part for higher DNA adduct levels.27Kure E.H. Ryberg D. Hewer A. Phillips D.H. Skaug V. Baera R et al.p53 mutations in lung tumours: relationship to gender and lung DNA adduct levels.Carcinogenesis. 1996; 17: 2201-2205Crossref PubMed Scopus (169) Google Scholar It has been found that the frequency of nucleotide transversions at the p53 locus is higher among female smokers with lung cancer than among either male smokers with lung cancer or female never-smokers with lung cancer.28Toyooka S, Shimizu N, Gazdar AF, et al. Influence of gender on tobacco exposure related to p53 gene mutations in lung cancer: Analysis of the International Agency for research on cancer (IACR) database [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 10th world conference on lung cancer. 2003. p. 26.Google Scholar, 29Guinee D.G. Travis W.D. Trivers G.E. De Benedetti V.M. Cawley H. Welsh J.A et al.Gender comparisons in human lung cancer: analysis of p53 mutations, anti-p53 serum antibodies and C-erbB-2 expression.Carcinogenesis. 1995; 16: 993-991002Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar K-ras gene mutations have also been found more commonly in female patients with lung cancer (26.2%) who were smokers than among male smokers with lung cancer (17.4%). The presence of K-ras mutation has been found to predict a poor prognosis. It has been found mainly in adenocarcinomas of the lung and only in patients with lung cancer who also have a history of smoking.30Nelson H.H. Christiani D.C. Mark E.J. Wiencke J.K. Wain J.C. Kelsey K.T. Implications and prognostic value of K-ras mutation for early-stage lung cancer in women.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91: 2032-2037Crossref PubMed Scopus (205) Google Scholar This observation has led Nelson and colleagues30Nelson H.H. Christiani D.C. Mark E.J. Wiencke J.K. Wain J.C. Kelsey K.T. Implications and prognostic value of K-ras mutation for early-stage lung cancer in women.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91: 2032-2037Crossref PubMed Scopus (205) Google Scholar to propose that “cigarette smoking induces K-ras mutations and the resultant clones are further expanded by a second event that may involve the growth-promoting effects of hormones (like estrogen) that may be specific for the adenocarcinoma histology.” Another area of investigation involves genetic differences in the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) gene that is located on the X chromosome. The peptide plays a role in carcinogenesis by stimulating cell proliferation.31Siegfried J.M. DeMichele M.A. Hunt J.D. Davis A.G. Vohra K.P. Pilewski J.M. Expression of mRNA for gastrin-releasing peptide receptor by human bronchial epithelial cells: association with prolonged tobacco exposure and responsiveness to bombesin-like peptides.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997; 156: 358-366Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar Shriver and colleagues32Shriver S.P. Bourdeau H.A. Gubish C.T. Tirpak D.L. Davis A.L. Luketich J.D et al.Sex-specific expression of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor: relationship to smoking history and risk of lung cancer.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 24-33Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar found that GRPR messenger RNA was detected more frequently in female than male nonsmokers (55% vs 0%) and that among smokers GRPR messenger RNA was detected at lower levels of tobacco exposure in women than in men (75% vs 20%). The authors concluded that the presence of two copies of the GRPR gene in women might play a role in their increased susceptibility to lung cancer. They also considered that GRPR expression in the airway, either de novo or as a result of exposure to tobacco, might predispose an individual toward the development of lung cancer.32Shriver S.P. Bourdeau H.A. Gubish C.T. Tirpak D.L. Davis A.L. Luketich J.D et al.Sex-specific expression of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor: relationship to smoking history and risk of lung cancer.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 24-33Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar In summary, complex interactions of tobacco, tobacco smoke carcinogens, and biologic, hormonal, and genetic factors probably explain the differences in lung cancer risk between women and men. The precise nature of these interactions is the focus of ongoing investigations. In recent years, the histologic distribution of lung cancer has changed in both sexes. Four separate studies that used data from large cancer registries have demonstrated an overall decrease in the incidence of squamous cell carcinoma and an increase in the incidence of adenocarcinoma.33Wingo P.A. Ries L.A. Giovino G.A. Miller D.S. Rosenberg H.M. Shopland D.R et al.Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1973-1996, with a special section on lung cancer and tobacco smoking.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 8: 675-690Crossref Scopus (509) Google Scholar, 34Travis W.D. Lubin J. Ries L. Devesa S. United States lung carcinoma incidence trends: declining for most histologic types among males, increasing among females.Cancer. 1996; 77: 2464-2470Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 35Levi F. Franceschi S. La Vecchia C. Randimbison L. Te V.C. Lung carcinoma trends by histologic type in Vaud and Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1974-1994.Cancer. 1997; 79: 906-914Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar, 36Fry W.A. Menck H.R. Winchester D.P. The National Cancer Database Report on Lung Cancer.Cancer. 1996; 77: 1947-1955Crossref PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar The histologic distribution of lung cancer among women is distinctly different from that among men. Most nonsmokers and never-smokers with lung cancer are female, and adenocarcinoma prevails in these groups. Like men, most women who acquire lung cancer are current or former smokers. The incidence of squamous cell cancer is lower among women than among men, ranging from 10% to 35% among women versus 30% to 55% among men.37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 39Wynder E.L. Muscat J.E. The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology.Environ Health Perspect. 1995; 103: 143-148Crossref PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar, 40Wynder E.L. Mabuchi K. Beattie Jr, E.J. The epidemiology of lung cancer. Recent trends.JAMA. 1970; 213: 2221-2228Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar Small cell carcinoma histologic type accounts for 17% to 34% of lung cancers among women, in contrast to 15% to 20% among men. The percentage of lung adenocarcinomas among women has been higher than that among men since the 1960s and averages between 20% and 60% in reported series.8Zang E.A. Wynder E.L. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88: 183-192Crossref PubMed Scopus (579) Google Scholar, 9Risch H.A. Howe G.R. Jain M. Burch J.D. Holowaty E.J. Miller A.B. Are female smokers at higher risk for lung cancer than male smokers? A case-control analysis by histologic type.Am J Epidemiol. 1993; 138: 281-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar, 10Harris R.E. Zang E.A. Anderson J.I. Wynder E.L. Race and sex differences in lung cancer risk associated with cigarette smoking.Int J Epidemiol. 1993; 22: 592-599Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar, 34Travis W.D. Lubin J. Ries L. Devesa S. United States lung carcinoma incidence trends: declining for most histologic types among males, increasing among females.Cancer. 1996; 77: 2464-2470Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 39Wynder E.L. Muscat J.E. The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology.Environ Health Perspect. 1995; 103: 143-148Crossref PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar, 40Wynder E.L. Mabuchi K. Beattie Jr, E.J. The epidemiology of lung cancer. Recent trends.JAMA. 1970; 213: 2221-2228Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar, 41Wynder E.L. Hoffmann D. Smoking and lung cancer: scientific challenges and opportunities.Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 5284-5295PubMed Google Scholar, 42Miller B.A. Ries L.A. Hankey B.F. Kosary C.L. Harras A. Devesa S.S et al.SEER Cancer statistics review: 1973-1990. DHHS Publ No. (NIH) 93-2789. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda (MD)1993Google Scholar, 43Koo L.C. Ho J.H. Worldwide epidemiological patterns of lung cancer in nonsmokers.Int J Epidemiol. 1990; 19: S14-23Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar, 44Kabat G.C. Wynder E.L. Lung cancer in nonsmokers.Cancer. 1984; 53: 1214-1221Crossref PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar, 45de Perrot M. Licker M. Bouchardy C. Usel M. Robert J. Spiliopoulos A et al.Sex differences in presentation, management and prognosis of patients with non–small cell lung carcinoma.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2000; 119: 21-26Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar The incidence of adenocarcinoma among women who are nonsmokers is even higher.38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 46Fontham E.T. Correa P. Reynolds P. Wu-Williams A. Buffler P.A. Greenberg R.S et al.Environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in nonsmoking women. A multicenter study.JAMA. 1994; 271: 1752-1759Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar The bronchoalveolar subtype of adenocarcinoma is 2 to 4 times more common among women with lung cancer, particularly women who are nonsmokers, than among men and constitutes 3.6% of the cases in most series.8Zang E.A. Wynder E.L. Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88: 183-192Crossref PubMed Scopus (579) Google Scholar, 37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 47Kmietowicz Z. Women at double risk of small cell lung cancer.BMJ. 1998; 317: 1614Crossref Google Scholar, 48Barsky S.H. Cameron R. Osann K.E. Tomita D. Holmes E.C. Rising incidence of bronchioloalveolar lung carcinoma and its unique clinicopathologic features.Cancer. 1994; 73: 1163-1170Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar The increased incidence of adenocarcinoma, as opposed to other histologic types of lung cancer, among women has been attributed to several causes, including biologic factors, such as hormones, enzyme phenotypes, and underlying lung disease, and environmental factors, such as second-hand smoke, to which women are more often exposed.34Travis W.D. Lubin J. Ries L. Devesa S. United States lung carcinoma incidence trends: declining for most histologic types among males, increasing among females.Cancer. 1996; 77: 2464-2470Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 46Fontham E.T. Correa P. Reynolds P. Wu-Williams A. Buffler P.A. Greenberg R.S et al.Environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in nonsmoking women. A multicenter study.JAMA. 1994; 271: 1752-1759Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 49Cagle P.T. Mody D.R. Schwartz M.R. Estrogen and progesterone receptors in bronchogenic carcinoma.Cancer Res. 1990; 50: 6632-6635PubMed Google Scholar, 50Adami H.O. Persson I. Hoover R. Schairer C. Bergkvist L. Risk of cancer in women receiving hormone replacement therapy.Int J Cancer. 1989; 44: 833-839Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar, 51Gao Y.T. Blot W.J. Zheng W. Ershow A.G. Hsu C.W. Levin L.I et al.Lung cancer among Chinese women.Int J Cancer. 1987; 40: 604-609Crossref PubMed Scopus (363) Google Scholar, 52Chaudhuri P.K. Thomas P.A. Walker M.J. Briele H.A. Das Gupta T.K. Beattie C.W. Steroid receptors in human lung cancer cytosols.Cancer Lett. 1982; 16: 327-332Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar For example, Adami and colleagues50Adami H.O. Persson I. Hoover R. Schairer C. Bergkvist L. Risk of cancer in women receiving hormone replacement therapy.Int J Cancer. 1989; 44: 833-839Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar demonstrated a 30% increase in lung cancer among women receiving estrogen replacement therapy. The predominance of adenocarcinoma is particularly striking among nonsmokers, among whom the incidence ranges from 50% to 93%.38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 43Koo L.C. Ho J.H. Worldwide epidemiological patterns of lung cancer in nonsmokers.Int J Epidemiol. 1990; 19: S14-23Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar, 46Fontham E.T. Correa P. Reynolds P. Wu-Williams A. Buffler P.A. Greenberg R.S et al.Environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in nonsmoking women. A multicenter study.JAMA. 1994; 271: 1752-1759Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 51Gao Y.T. Blot W.J. Zheng W. Ershow A.G. Hsu C.W. Levin L.I et al.Lung cancer among Chinese women.Int J Cancer. 1987; 40: 604-609Crossref PubMed Scopus (363) Google Scholar Among nonsmokers with lung cancer, women outnumber men nearly 3:1 a fact that strongly supports a sex-based difference in the susceptibility toward the development of lung cancer, particularly adenocarcinoma of the lung. A retrospective study by Ferguson and associates53Ferguson M.K. Skosey C. Hoffman P.C. Golomb H.M. Sex-associated differences in presentation and survival in patients with lung cancer.J Clin Oncol. 1990; 8: 1402-1407Crossref PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar of 478 men and 294 women with lung cancer demonstrated that the vast majority of patients are seen with advanced disease. Compared with men, however, a higher percentage of women were first seen with stage I disease (16.3% vs 9.4%), whereas fewer had stage III disease (35.4% vs 44.4%). Equal percentages of men and women were first seen with stage II (4.4% vs 5.2%) and stage IV (43.9% vs 41%) disease. A larger database analysis has suggested that stage I disease may be more equally distributed between men and women, but the fact remains that the majority of both men and women still are first seen with stage III or stage IV disease.37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar Several studies, including an analysis of 1521 patients treated for small cell lung cancer in several Cancer and Leukemia Group B trials, have demonstrated that stage for stage, women exhibit better survival than do men.54Ramalingam S. Pawlish K. Gadgeel S. Demers R. Kalemkerian G.P. Lung cancer in young patients: analysis of a surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database.J Clin Oncol. 1998; 16: 651-657Crossref PubMed Scopus (182) Google Scholar, 55Johnson B.E. Steinberg S.M. Phelps R. Edison M. Veach S.R. Ihde D.C. Female patients with small cell lung cancer live longer than male patients.Am J Med. 1988; 85: 194-196Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar, 56Spiegelman D. Maurer L.H. Ware J.H. Perry M.C. Chahinian A.P. Comis R et al.Prognostic factors in small-cell carcinoma of the lung: an analysis of 1,521 patients.J Clin Oncol. 1989; 7: 344-354Crossref PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar, 57Skarin A.T. Analysis of long-term survivors with small-cell lung cancer.Chest. 1993; 103 (440s-4s)Google Scholar These studies also found that women tended to be seen with later stage disease, regardless of age, performance status, and whether they were enrolled in clinical trials.55Johnson B.E. Steinberg S.M. Phelps R. Edison M. Veach S.R. Ihde D.C. Female patients with small cell lung cancer live longer than male patients.Am J Med. 1988; 85: 194-196Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar In the Southwest Oncology Group Study 8269 of limited stage small cell lung cancer, female sex was found to be a strong favorable independent predictor of survival in the univariate analysis. Five-year survival rates for women were 37%, compared with 19% for men. However, female sex was not found to be a significant predictor of survival in the multivariate analysis.58Albain K.S. Crowley J.J. LeBlanc M. Livingston R.B. Determinants of improved outcome in small-cell lung cancer: an analysis of the 2,580-patient Southwest Oncology Group data base.J Clin Oncol. 1990; 8: 1563-1574Crossref PubMed Scopus (330) Google Scholar Several studies have shown improved survival for women treated for lung cancer.38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 59Mitsudomi T. Tateishi M. Oka T. Yano T. Ishida T. Sugimachi K. Longer survival after resection of non-small cell lung cancer in Japanese women.Ann Thorac Surg. 1989; 48: 639-642Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 60Graham M.V. Purdy J.A. Emami B. Matthews J.W. Harms W.B. Preliminary results of a prospective trial using three dimensional radiotherapy for lung cancer.Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995; 33: 993-991000Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar, 61Ries L.A. Kosary C. Hankey B.F et al.SEER Cancer statistics review: 1973-1993. DHHS Publ No. (NIH) 96-2789. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda (MD)1996Google Scholar, 62Albain K.S. Rusch V.W. Crowley J.J. Rice T.W. Turrisi A.T. Weick J.K et al.Concurrent cisplatin/etoposide plus chest radiotherapy followed by surgery for stages IIIA (N2) and IIIB non-small-cell lung cancer: mature results of Southwest Oncology Group phase II study 8805.J Clin Oncol. 1995; 13: 1880-1892Crossref PubMed Scopus (784) Google Scholar The 5-year survival is 15.6% for women, compared with 12.4% for men.61Ries L.A. Kosary C. Hankey B.F et al.SEER Cancer statistics review: 1973-1993. DHHS Publ No. (NIH) 96-2789. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda (MD)1996Google Scholar It is of interest that a recent study by Minami and colleagues38Minami H. Yoshimura M. Miyamoto Y. Matsuoka H. Tsubota N. Lung cancer in women: sex-associated differences in survival of patients undergoing resection for lung cancer.Chest. 2000; 118: 1603-1609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar demonstrated that complete surgical resection was possible in women less often than in men because of increased incidence of malignant pleural effusion and T4 disease (19.9% vs 14.4%). In cases of surgically resectable disease, however, survival after complete resection, especially for women older than 60 years, was markedly improved relative to their male counterparts. Much of the increase in survival is likely attributable to an increased life expectancy of women relative to men in this age group. When complete resection, greater life expectancy, and better performance status were all taken into consideration, women were found to have a 2-fold increased chance of long-term survival.63Bouchardy C. Fioretta G. De Perrot M. Obradovic M. Spiliopoulos A. Determinants of long term survival after surgery for cancer of the lung: a population-based study.Cancer. 1999; 86: 2229-2237Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar In advanced non–small cell lung cancer a significant benefit was also seen, whereby the 2-year survival rate was more than doubled from 11% in men to 27% in women.64Paesmans M. Sculier J.P. Libert P. Bureau G. Dabouis G. Thiriaux J et al.Prognostic factors for survival in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: univariate and multivariate analyses including recursive partitioning and amalgamation algorithms in 1,052 patients. The European Lung Cancer Working Party.J Clin Oncol. 1995; 13: 1221-1230Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar Improved survival for women in every stage was shown in a retrospective cohort study of 104 men and women.65Ouellette D. Desbiens G. Emond C. Beauchamp G. Lung cancer in women compared with men: stage, treatment, and survival.Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 1140-1143Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar Women lived an average of 12 months longer than men, even though equal numbers of stage I disease were present in both groups and more stage IV disease was present among the women. Overall, nearly all clinical studies performed that have focused on survival in women with lung cancer have found the female sex to be at least a positive or neutral prognostic factor. The dichotomy of lung cancer in women, as predominantly stage I or disseminated stage IV disease, has resulted in the appearance of equal survivals of men and women overall when in fact survival is improved among women when adjusted for the clinical stage of disease. This improved survival according to clinical stage was demonstrated in a small cohort study by Ouellette and associates65Ouellette D. Desbiens G. Emond C. Beauchamp G. Lung cancer in women compared with men: stage, treatment, and survival.Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 1140-1143Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar as well as a large population-based study from Poland37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar that analyzed more than 20,000 cases of lung cancer, of which nearly 3000 cases were in women. In thisstudy,37Radzikowska E. Glaz P. Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20,561 cases.Ann Oncol. 2002; 13: 1087-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar female sex was a positive prognostic variable in both univariate and multivariate analyses, behind clinical stage and performance status in terms of importance and clinical impact. That the survival benefit of female sex remains even when these other prognostic factors are taken into account suggests that the evaluation of disease-free survival and hormonal status will be important parameters to include in future sex-based clinical studies. Evidence is accumulating to support the notion that the risk of development of lung cancer is different among women than among men. Women may be more susceptible to the ill effects of carcinogens in tobacco and tobacco smoke as a result of hormonal, genetic, and metabolic differences between the sexes. The preponderance of adenocarcinoma among women compared with men, and among women who are nonsmokers as well as younger women, argues in favor of a hormonal influence in this subtype of lung cancer. Future research efforts will continue to investigate and corroborate the findings outlined in this editorial and it is hoped will lead to a better understanding of lung cancer in both women and men." @default.
• W2006804742 created "2016-06-24" @default.
• W2006804742 creator A5059391171 @default.
• W2006804742 creator A5082642628 @default.
• W2006804742 date "2004-09-01" @default.
• W2006804742 modified "2023-10-14" @default.
• W2006804742 title "Gender differences in lung cancer: Have we really come a long way, baby?" @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1550750173 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1792964657 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1817196311 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1882728012 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1886730757 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1895855332 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1900867937 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1966829926 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1967311519 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1993623872 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1994211349 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1997125054 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W1999796508 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2002742531 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2011701047 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2012692477 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2013944980 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2015054638 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2018404988 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2025096740 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2038701184 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2040511804 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2045463057 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2048842466 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2057616211 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2058680827 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2064818248 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2066680643 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2071013205 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2073748726 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2074090791 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2076942141 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2077249526 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2077372889 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2092688124 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2095713842 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2096670995 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2101324933 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2102232287 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2116247267 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2122360825 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2135114425 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2142508809 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2146057990 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2156324563 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2160059440 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2162432685 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2168558729 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W2252688746 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W4293384232 @default.
• W2006804742 cites W4324121457 @default.
• W2006804742 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcvs.2004.05.025" @default.
• W2006804742 hasPubMedId "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15354089" @default.
• W2006804742 hasPublicationYear "2004" @default.
• W2006804742 type Work @default.
• W2006804742 sameAs 2006804742 @default.
• W2006804742 citedByCount "53" @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422012 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422013 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422014 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422015 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422017 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422018 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422020 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422021 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422022 @default.
• W2006804742 countsByYear W20068047422023 @default.
• W2006804742 crossrefType "journal-article" @default.
• W2006804742 hasAuthorship W2006804742A5059391171 @default.
• W2006804742 hasAuthorship W2006804742A5082642628 @default.
• W2006804742 hasBestOaLocation W20068047421 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConcept C143998085 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConcept C177713679 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConcept C2776256026 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConcept C71924100 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConceptScore W2006804742C143998085 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConceptScore W2006804742C177713679 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConceptScore W2006804742C2776256026 @default.
• W2006804742 hasConceptScore W2006804742C71924100 @default.
• W2006804742 hasIssue "3" @default.
• W2006804742 hasLocation W20068047421 @default.
• W2006804742 hasLocation W20068047422 @default.
• W2006804742 hasOpenAccess W2006804742 @default.
• W2006804742 hasPrimaryLocation W20068047421 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W1506200166 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W1995515455 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W2048182022 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W2080531066 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W2604872355 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W2748952813 @default.
• W2006804742 hasRelatedWork W2899084033 @default.

• next