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• W2016615097 abstract "Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health threat in the United States, with increasing prevalence, high costs, and poor outcomes. More widespread effort at the prevention, early detection, evaluation, and management of CKD and antecedent conditions could prevent complications of decreased kidney function, slow the progression of kidney disease to kidney failure, and reduce cardiovascular disease risk. In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) launched an initiative on CKD. As part of this initiative, the CDC convened an expert panel to outline recommendations for a comprehensive public health strategy to prevent the development, progression, and complications of CKD in the United States. The panel adapted strategies for primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention for chronic diseases to the conceptual model for the development, progression, and complications of CKD; reviewed epidemiological data from US federal agencies; and discussed ways of integrating public health efforts from various agencies and organizations. The panel recommended a 10-point plan to the CDC to improve surveillance, screening, education, and awareness directed at 3 target populations: people with CKD or at increased risk of developing CKD; providers, hospitals, and clinical laboratories; and the general public. Cooperation among federal, state, and local governmental and private organizations will be necessary to carry out these recommendations. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health threat in the United States, with increasing prevalence, high costs, and poor outcomes. More widespread effort at the prevention, early detection, evaluation, and management of CKD and antecedent conditions could prevent complications of decreased kidney function, slow the progression of kidney disease to kidney failure, and reduce cardiovascular disease risk. In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) launched an initiative on CKD. As part of this initiative, the CDC convened an expert panel to outline recommendations for a comprehensive public health strategy to prevent the development, progression, and complications of CKD in the United States. The panel adapted strategies for primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention for chronic diseases to the conceptual model for the development, progression, and complications of CKD; reviewed epidemiological data from US federal agencies; and discussed ways of integrating public health efforts from various agencies and organizations. The panel recommended a 10-point plan to the CDC to improve surveillance, screening, education, and awareness directed at 3 target populations: people with CKD or at increased risk of developing CKD; providers, hospitals, and clinical laboratories; and the general public. Cooperation among federal, state, and local governmental and private organizations will be necessary to carry out these recommendations. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a growing public health threat in the United States, with an increasing prevalence of kidney failure and earlier stages of CKD, high costs, and poor outcomes.1Schoolwerth A.C. Engelgau M.M. Hostetter T.H. et al.Chronic kidney disease: A public health problem that needs a public health action plan.Prev Chronic Dis. 2006; ([serial online], Apr) (Accessed December 21, 2008)http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2006/apr/05_0105.htmPubMed Google Scholar, 2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google Scholar, 3Levey A.S. Coresh J. Balk E. et al.National Kidney Foundation practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139: 137-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (3626) Google Scholar, 4Levey A.S. Eckardt K.U. Tsukamoto Y. et al.Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: A position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO).Kidney Int. 2005; 67: 2089-2100Crossref PubMed Scopus (2446) Google Scholar CKD is one of a number of chronic diseases affecting primarily the elderly and leading to substantially increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), with a disproportionate burden in racial and ethnic minorities. As with hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia, CKD is silent in its early stages, but can be detected from simple clinical and laboratory measurements. Treatment now is available to prevent complications of decreased kidney function, slow the progression of kidney disease, and reduce CVD risk.2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google Scholar CKD testing can detect earlier stages of CKD, and the same methods used in clinical practice can be used to screen populations at increased risk.5Vassalotti J.A. Stevens L.A. Levey A.S. Testing for chronic kidney disease: A position statement from the National Kidney Foundation.Am J Kidney Dis. 2007; 50: 169-180Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (272) Google Scholar Public health interventions are available to improve the treatment and prevent the development of hypertension and diabetes, the 2 most common causes of CKD in adults.6Chobanian A.V. Bakris G.L. Black H.R. et al.The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC 7 Report.JAMA. 2003; 289: 2560-2572Crossref PubMed Scopus (16368) Google Scholar, 7American Diabetes AssociationStandards of medical care in diabetes—2006.Diabetes Care. 2006; 29: S1-S71PubMed Google Scholar Thus, the tools to reduce the burden of CKD are already available, but a comprehensive public health approach has not yet been developed.Physician organizations in the United States have recognized the need to improve care for patients with kidney failure and earlier stages of CKD.8Parker T.F. Blantz R. Hostetter T. et al.The chronic kidney disease initiative.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004; 15: 708-716Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, 9Hull A.R. Parker T.F. Proceedings from the Morbidity, Mortality and Prescription of Dialysis Symposium, Dallas, TX, September 15-17, 1989.Am J Kidney Dis. 1990; 15: 375-383Scopus (142) Google Scholar In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as requested by Congress, launched an initiative on CKD.10Centers for Disease Control and PreventionChronic kidney disease initiative.http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/projects/kidney.htmGoogle Scholar As part of this initiative, the CDC convened an expert panel meeting to outline recommendations for comprehensive public health strategies to prevent the development, progression, and complications of CKD in the United States. This report summarizes the findings of the panel from its meeting in March 2007 and its recommendations to the CDC.The Public Health Threat From CKDThe incidence, prevalence, mortality, and cost for patients with kidney failure treated by dialysis and transplantation, the end stage of CKD, have increased steadily during the past 2 decades and are projected to continue to increase through 2020 (Table 1).11US Renal Data SystemUSRDS 2007 Annual Data Report. The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD2007Google Scholar The recent stabilization of incidence rates of treated kidney failure is encouraging, but appears to reflect a mixture of several trends.12Burrows N.R. Wang J. Geiss L.S. Venkat Narayan K.M. Engelgau M.M. Incidence of end-stage renal disease among persons with diabetes—United States 1990-2002.MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005; 54: 1097-1100PubMed Google Scholar First, the increase in age and comorbidity of patients initiating dialysis therapy during the past decade suggests that part of the prior increase in incidence may have been caused by increases in treatment, in addition to increases in kidney failure. Possibly, the stabilization of incidence rates in some groups reflects stabilization in treatment. Second, the decrease in incidence rate in some groups, such as in young white people with diabetes mellitus, strongly suggests delay in kidney failure because of improvements in the treatment of patients with earlier stages of disease in this high-risk group. The continuing increase in incidence rate in the elderly and racial and ethnic minorities may represent important disparities in health care. Incidence rates for African Americans and Native Americans are nearly 3 and 2 times greater than for whites, respectively. Incidence rates for people older than 65 years are nearly 3 times greater than for younger people (Fig 1).2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google Scholar, 11US Renal Data SystemUSRDS 2007 Annual Data Report. The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD2007Google ScholarTable 1Kidney Failure in the United States Open table in a new tab There is more than a 50-fold greater prevalence of patients with earlier stages of CKD, defined as albuminuria or decreased estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR), compared with patients with treated kidney failure.13Coresh J. Selvin E. Stevens L.A. et al.Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States.JAMA. 2007; 298: 2038-2047Crossref PubMed Scopus (3846) Google Scholar Approximately 13% of the noninstitutionalized US adult population is now estimated to have CKD (26 million individuals), an increase from 10% almost 10 years earlier.13Coresh J. Selvin E. Stevens L.A. et al.Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States.JAMA. 2007; 298: 2038-2047Crossref PubMed Scopus (3846) Google Scholar, 14Coresh J. Astor B. Greene T. Eknoyan G. Levey A. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.Am J Kidney Dis. 2003; 41: 1-12Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2286) Google Scholar The increase is greatest in the elderly and appears to be caused in part by an increasing prevalence of diabetes and hypertension.Altogether, these findings have dramatic potential consequences for the burden of CKD. First, the age-related decrease in GFR, long considered a “normal” part of aging, is associated with complications, increased risk of adverse outcomes, and high costs. Second, the aging of the population portends continuing increases in the number of cases of CKD, even if the incidence rate remains stable. Third, the increasing prevalence of obesity may lead to an earlier age of onset of hypertension and diabetes that could lead to an increasing incidence rate of kidney failure and CVD. Fourth, mounting costs for dialysis and transplantation are occurring at the same time that costs for other chronic diseases are increasing. The care of patients with chronic diseases consumes a large fraction of health care resources.15US Renal Data SystemUSRDS 2005 Annual Data Report. The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD2005Google Scholar The epidemic of obesity is expected to magnify these costs.These findings are not unique to the United States. Throughout the world, chronic noncommunicable diseases are increasingly recognized as a public health threat.16Yach D. Hawkes C. Gould C.L. Hofman K.J. The global burden of chronic diseases: Overcoming impediments to prevention and control.JAMA. 2004; 291: 2616-2622Crossref PubMed Scopus (998) Google Scholar Prevalence estimates for treated kidney failure vary widely, in part because of limited availability of dialysis and transplantation. In Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand, where dialysis and transplantation are paid for by the government, the prevalence of treated kidney failure is as high as in the United States.17Lysaght M.J. Maintenance dialysis population dynamics: Current trends and long-term implications.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: S37-S40PubMed Google Scholar The prevalence of earlier stages of kidney disease in developed countries within Europe, Asia, and Australia also appears similar to that observed in the United States.18Chen J. Wildman R.P. Gu D. et al.Prevalence of decreased kidney function in Chinese adults aged 35 to 74 years.Kidney Int. 2005; 68: 2837-2845Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar, 19Hallan S.I. Coresh J. Astor B.C. et al.International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17: 2275-2284Crossref PubMed Scopus (534) Google Scholar, 20Chadban S.J. Briganti E.M. Kerr P.G. et al.Prevalence of kidney damage in Australian adults: The AusDiab Kidney Study.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003; 14: S131-S138Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Accurate data for developing countries are not available. Developing countries are now experiencing the burden of noncommunicable chronic diseases, although communicable chronic diseases are not yet under control. For all countries, prevention, early detection, and intervention would be more cost-effective than treatment for kidney failure.The Panel and its ReviewThe panel co-chairs were selected by the CDC, and other members were invited because of their knowledge of epidemiology, clinical practice guidelines, and current initiatives on screening and surveillance for CKD in the United States. The panel adapted preventive strategies for chronic diseases to the conceptual model for the development, progression, and complications of CKD; reviewed epidemiological data from US federal agencies; and discussed ways of integrating public health efforts for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of CKD. The recommendations were developed during the panel's 2-day meeting in March 2007, in which representatives from federal agencies and US voluntary health organizations were invited to participate. The agenda and a roster of participants are available at the CDC website.21Centers for Disease Control and PreventionDisease Public Health Resource Diabetes Project: Kidney Disease Initiative.http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/projects/kidney.htmGoogle Scholar The report was prepared by the authors, with review and approval by all members of the expert panel and by the CDC. Figure 2 shows a conceptual model for CKD and its relationship to the classification of preventive strategies.2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google Scholar, 3Levey A.S. Coresh J. Balk E. et al.National Kidney Foundation practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139: 137-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (3626) Google Scholar, 4Levey A.S. Eckardt K.U. Tsukamoto Y. et al.Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: A position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO).Kidney Int. 2005; 67: 2089-2100Crossref PubMed Scopus (2446) Google Scholar, 22Gordon Jr, R.S. An operational classification of disease prevention.Public Health Rep. 1983; 98: 107-109PubMed Google Scholar, 23Froom P. Benbassat J. Inconsistencies in the classification of preventive interventions.Prev Med. 2000; 31: 153-158Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar Table 2 links these preventive strategies with clinical and epidemiological features of CKD and US clinical practice guidelines.2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google Scholar, 6Chobanian A.V. Bakris G.L. Black H.R. et al.The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC 7 Report.JAMA. 2003; 289: 2560-2572Crossref PubMed Scopus (16368) Google Scholar, 7American Diabetes AssociationStandards of medical care in diabetes—2006.Diabetes Care. 2006; 29: S1-S71PubMed Google Scholar, 11US Renal Data SystemUSRDS 2007 Annual Data Report. The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD2007Google Scholar, 14Coresh J. Astor B. Greene T. Eknoyan G. Levey A. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.Am J Kidney Dis. 2003; 41: 1-12Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2286) Google Scholar, 24Ruggenenti P. Fassi A. 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Coresh J. et al.Recommendations for improving serum creatinine measurement: A report from the laboratory working group of the National Kidney Disease Education Program.Clin Chem. 2006; 52: 5-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (999) Google ScholarFigure 2Conceptual model of the public health approach for chronic kidney disease (CKD). Green circles, stages of CKD; blue circles, potential antecedents or consequences of CKD; thick arrows between circles, risk factors associated with the initiation and progression of disease that can be affected or detected by interventions; purple circles, outcomes of CKD. “Complications” refers to all complications of CKD and its treatment, including complications of decreased glomerular filtration rate (hypertension, anemia, malnutrition, and bone and mineral disease) and cardiovascular disease. Preventive strategies are shown below the target populations and risk factors to which they apply. Primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention refer to CKD. Modified and reprinted with permission.2National Kidney FoundationK/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification.Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266PubMed Google ScholarView Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Table 2Description, Prevalence Estimates, Public Health Strategies, and Clinical Guidelines for CKD and Antecedent ConditionsPreventive Strategies†Primary prevention is directed at people at increased risk of CKD; secondary prevention, at patients with CKD stages 1 to 4, divided into 2 groups based on CKD stages 1 to 2 (kidney damage) and stages 3 to 4 (decreased GFR); and tertiary prevention, at patients with kidney failure, including those treated by dialysis and transplantation.CKD Stage or Antecedent ConditionsDescriptionGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2)Prevalence⁎Prevalence estimates for antecedent conditions based on data in people 20 years or older.43-45 Prevalence for CKD stages 1 to 4 is projected from the NHANES (1999-2004) for the population of 200 million adults aged 20 years or older in 2000.14 Prevalence for CKD stage 5 is based on 300,000" @default.
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• W2016615097 title "Comprehensive Public Health Strategies for Preventing the Development, Progression, and Complications of CKD: Report of an Expert Panel Convened by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention" @default.
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