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• W2017013111 abstract "Billions of tons of seawater are used every year for cooling industrial, commercial, and residential coastal buildings. This is partially in response to a perception that systems using freshwater or powered by fossil fuels are less sustainable. Fouling by organisms inside pipes can reduce cooling efficiency, which may cost up to 0.25% of the gross domestic product per year in industrialized countries (Steinhagen et al. 1992). A network of pipes continuously draws seawater from the environment and as it passes through, heat is transferred from the building to the seawater cooling the building. A suite of mechanical (e.g., screens), physical (e.g., scraping pipes), and chemical (e.g., application of biocides to the seawater and/or pipes) methods are used to reduce the growth of fouling organisms. Biocides that are added during this process are discharged with the seawater back into the environment. The purpose of this Learned Discourse is to outline potential environmental impacts of discharges from buildings using seawater as a coolant and to suggest a management framework to improve the assessment of risk of biocides. Two main types of biocides are used to reduce fouling. These differ in their modes of action: oxidizing (e.g., Cl, chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, ozone, and bromine) or nonoxidizing (e.g., amines, copper salts, quaternary ammonium salts) biocides. Oxidizing biocides are widely used; however, these 1) corrode pipes, 2) must be used in substantial quantities to be effective, and 3) carry concerns about the toxicity of chlorinated and halogenated byproducts (Abarnou and Miossec 1992). Recently, oxidizing biocides have been replaced by film-forming biocides based on amines. These 1) are less corrosive to the cooling systems, 2) require smaller quantities to be effective, and 3) are thought to have smaller ecological impacts. In just 6 months, a single power plant using 30 m3/s of seawater each day with a continuous 1 mg/L addition of Cl uses 470 tons of Cl (Abarnou and Miossec 1992), whereas it is estimated that less than 80 tons of amine biocide would be needed. The choice of biocides is usually dictated by financial and, at the moment, very limited ecotoxicological information. Currently, more than 1000 tons of amine biocides (e.g., Mexel 432, A32, and Seatreat-6) are used worldwide. Producers claim that these biocides are more effective at reducing fouling in pipes and have a reduced environmental impact, yet there is little accurate information on the ecological effects of these biocides in the marine environment. Given that biocides are not removed from the seawater before discharge, some jurisdictions restrict their use based on the maximum concentration allowed in habitats, whereas others allow their use before a formal risk assessment has been completed. The procedures used to assess the potential ecological risk of biocides are designed to minimize impacts. An important part of the assessment of risk uses information from laboratory experiments on the toxicological consequences of biocides to organisms. Computer simulations are also used to make predictions about the chemical concentration, extent, and/or persistence of biocides within the plume from discharges. Information from laboratory experiments and computer simulations is then used to make predictions about how the ecology of the habitats around sites of discharge may be affected (Figure 1). Integrated framework for improving our understanding about the ecological consequences of using seawater and biocide as a coolant. Gray boxes indicate techniques that are routinely used. Dashed boxes and arrows indicate gaps in our understanding and suggested integration. Laboratory experiments are, however, of limited use in ecological investigations, because they require every aspect of the environment of an organism to be held constant and every biological interaction to be excluded (Connell 1974). Therefore, laboratory experiments are likely to miss important variables that may affect the organisms, causing them to respond differently in the laboratory compared to natural habitats. Additionally, toxicity tests often concentrate on species that survive well under laboratory conditions (Attrill and Depledge 1997), and in many cases are often not even present in the habitat under investigation (Richardson and Martin 1994). When choosing a suitable organism, consideration should be given to its ecological or economic significance, its representativeness of other species in the habitat, and/or its suitability as an indicator of the current status of an ecological process (Underwood and Peterson 1988). Furthermore, unless computer models are based on and tested using information from well-designed field experiments, the extent of the plume is likely to be incorrectly estimated, which can have serious implications for the placement of the reference sites required for monitoring. If the assessment of risk stops here and is not tested in the real world using ecological field experiments, as is often the case, there may be significant moral, ethical, legal, and ecological problems. A better approach is to test the accuracy and usefulness of the predictions from laboratory experiments and modeling using carefully designed field experiments. This can be done with little extra expense as part of the process of assessment, regulation, and management of risk. Ideally, the risk assessment should combine laboratory and field experiments to allow us to integrate toxicology and ecology (sensu Chapman 2002; Figure 1). Laboratory experiments are useful for making predictions about the mechanisms of toxicity and the effects of biocides, but ecological research is needed to test predictions that are generated from laboratory experiments, on potential effects on the ecology of sites where discharges occur. Given that impacts often occur across different levels of organization, it is also important that a suite of techniques is used to test hypotheses simultaneously at various levels of biological organization (Underwood and Peterson 1988). This is important because biochemical, cellular, and physiological measurements are thought to provide the earliest warning of possible future deterioration and to be the most sensitive measures of contamination. In contrast, changes in assemblages are thought to provide a better indication of the ecological consequences of these discharges. When there may be fewer organisms at discharge sites, it is important to test the generality of these patterns in time and space. For biocides currently in use in buildings that use seawater as a coolant, we believe that part of their regulation and management should be to use correlative field experiments to test predicted responses on assemblages present at the discharge compared with reference sites. Previous attempts to do this have been compromised by weaknesses in experimental design (e.g., lack of proper controls and/or replication). For many locations, such as Sydney Harbour, Australia, we know that the plumbing of the cooling systems and the usage of biocide (type, volume, concentration, and administration) vary greatly. Consequently, it is important that, as part of assessing their risk, we also use well-designed manipulative field experiments by creating controlled points of discharge. Information from toxicological and computer modeling simulations can be used within these scenarios to formulate testable predictions. It is important to note that if the links between ecological variation and current ecotoxicology practice are fully integrated, then the experimental cycle necessarily becomes more complex. This increase in complexity will ensure that results are ecologically relevant and that our assessment of the risk in the real world is properly quantified. Such an integrated framework will provide more useful information for environmental managers, allowing them to develop appropriate actions to protect biodiversity, for example, choosing biocides that are financially and environmentally less costly. We thank the University of Sydney for the scholarship to FT Moreira and the Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities for additional financial support and constructive discussion. We also thank the New South Wales Department of Environment, Climatic Change and Water, North Sydney Council, Mexel Industries S.A., Veolia Water Australia, and Integra Water Treatment Solutions for facilitating this research." @default.
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• W2017013111 title "An ecological experimental framework for investigating and managing discharges from buildings using seawater as a coolant" @default.
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