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• W2021116572 abstract "A new study showing Antarctic krill sink when their stomachs are full has provided indirect evidence that krill undergo multiple daily vertical migrations. Such behavior could make a significant contribution to carbon sequestration by the deep oceans. A new study showing Antarctic krill sink when their stomachs are full has provided indirect evidence that krill undergo multiple daily vertical migrations. Such behavior could make a significant contribution to carbon sequestration by the deep oceans. Many small pelagic animals undertake extensive daily vertical migrations, sometimes travelling hundreds of meters to and from the food-rich surface layers of the ocean. The classic paradigm has organisms ascending to the upper layers at night to feed and returning to deeper waters during the day to avoid visual predators, predominantly fish. It has long been assumed that they make only one round trip every 24 hr [1Pearre Jr., S. Eat and run? The hunger/satiation hypothesis in vertical migration: history, evidence and consequences.Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2003; 78: 1-79Crossref PubMed Scopus (266) Google Scholar]. While the vertical migration of populations can be monitored by sampling with nets and other devices, uncovering the movements of individuals has been more problematic. Indirect evidence — analysis of gut contents — has suggested that animals move in and out of the feeding zone, as individuals collected from deep waters at night often contain prey that are only present in surface waters [2Pearre Jr., S. Vertical migration and feeding in Sagitta elegans Verrill.Ecol. 1973; 54: 300-314Crossref Google Scholar]. Direct verification of this, however, has been lacking. A new study [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] has provided tantalising evidence that one of the most numerically and ecologically important small pelagic species, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba, Figure 1), undertake more than one vertical migration per day. As they reported recently in Current Biology, by examining the swimming behavior of tethered krill, Tarling and Johnson [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] have shown that individuals actively reposition themselves lower in the water column when their stomachs are full. Antarctic krill are negatively buoyant and so must swim continuously to remain in the surface layers; if they stop swimming, they sink. Fortunately they can exert some control over their rate of descent by adopting a parachute mode, in which they fan out their swimming legs and open their feeding baskets, to decrease their sinking rate. In their experiments Tarling and Johnson [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] showed that krill with moderately full stomachs adopt the parachute mode significantly more often than those with empty stomachs. From the time it takes krill to digest their stomach contents and their sinking rate when parachuting, Tarling and Johnson [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] calculated that krill might make as many as three vertical migrations per night, during which they descend up to 43 meters while digesting and then re-ascend to feed. These observations provide important support for a theory known as the hunger/satiation hypothesis, which says that animals make short intermittent forays into surface waters where there is high food concentration, but also an increased risk of predation, and then return to intermediate depths to reduce risks while they digest [1Pearre Jr., S. Eat and run? The hunger/satiation hypothesis in vertical migration: history, evidence and consequences.Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2003; 78: 1-79Crossref PubMed Scopus (266) Google Scholar]. If krill are making multiple forays into their foraging grounds it seems the trade-off between the extra energy required to swim back to the surface and that saved by reducing activity while digesting is considerable. Perhaps more compelling, modelling of copepods making similar forays suggests that predation risk is lowered by up to 50% [4Leising A.W. Pierson J.J. Cary S. Frost B.W. Copepod foraging and predation within the surface layer during night-time feeding forays.J. Plankt. Res. 2005; 27: 987-1001Crossref Scopus (30) Google Scholar]. Such a potential benefit would suggest that other species exhibit similar behavior, yet at present we have no direct evidence for the prevalence of multiple daily vertical migrations. The implications of Tarling and Johnson's [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] study are significant and raise intriguing questions. Many large-scale models of ocean biogeochemical processes tend to take a simplistic view of the behavior of marine populations and rarely, if ever, address the behavior of individuals. Yet if models are going to provide realistic results then understanding these behaviors is imperative. Two issues arise directly from consideration of multiple daily vertical migrations. What are the implications for biogeochemical flux? And what effects could these movements be having on small-scale physics and chemistry of the water column? Faecal pellets of zooplankton are an important part of the carbon cycle in the southern ocean, with a large proportion being retained and remineralised in the upper ocean [5Beaumont K.L. Nash G.V. Davidson A.T. Ultrastructure, morphology and flux of microzooplankton faecal pellets in an east Antarctic fjord.Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2002; 245: 133-148Crossref Scopus (13) Google Scholar]. However, large pellets, such as those of Antarctic krill, sink faster than smaller ones and may sink up to 500 meters per day [6Cadée G.C. González H. Schnack-Schiel S.B. Krill diet affects faecal string settling.Polar Biol. 1992; 12: 75-80Google Scholar]. These pellets can be important transporters of carbon to the deep ocean where the carbon can be sequestered for many hundreds of years [7Broecker W.S. Peng T.H. Tracers in the Sea. Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia University1982Google Scholar]. The contents of sediment traps deployed in the southern ocean at greater than 500 meters are often dominated by the pellets of krill and large copepods [8Suzuki H. Sasaki H. Fukuchi M. Loss processes of sinking fecal pellets of zooplankton in the mesopelagic layers of the Antarctic marginal ice zone.J. Oceanogr. 2003; 59: 809-818Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar]. Tarling and Johnson [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] calculated that, through their multiple daily vertical migrations, krill could be indirectly responsible for transferring as much as 6% more carbon than previously estimated to the deep ocean sediment. If other members of the pelagic community are undertaking similar hunger-driven vertical migrations, the addition to the carbon flux below the mixed layer could be considerable. Surprisingly, the phenomenon of multiple daily vertical migrations could also have a major influence on ocean hydrodynamics [9Huntley M.E. Zhou M. Influence of animals in turbulence in the sea.Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004; 273: 65-79Crossref Scopus (94) Google Scholar]. At night, krill tend to be distributed diffusely within 15 to 30 meters of the surface and they are concentrated below 50 meters during the daytime [10Godlewska M. Vertical migrations of krill (Euphausia superba Dana).Pol. Arch. Hydrobiol. 1996; 43: 9-63Google Scholar, 11Zhou M. Dorland R.D. Aggregation and vertical migration behavior of Euphausia superba.Deep-sea Res. II. 2004; 51: 2119-2137Crossref Scopus (86) Google Scholar]. It has been calculated that the movements of krill aggregations could make a significant contribution to turbulent mixing in coastal surface waters [9Huntley M.E. Zhou M. Influence of animals in turbulence in the sea.Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004; 273: 65-79Crossref Scopus (94) Google Scholar]. In spring the bloom of phytoplankton in surface waters rapidly depletes macronutrients, especially nitrogen. It is possible that krill-induced mixing causes nutrient-poor surface waters to mix with deeper nutrient-rich waters, and so promotes the continual bloom of phytoplankton on which krill rely for reproduction and growth in summer. This biological turbulence, while not as important as physical mixing, could have significant impacts on water chemistry and biology at scales of 10 to 1000 meters [9Huntley M.E. Zhou M. Influence of animals in turbulence in the sea.Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004; 273: 65-79Crossref Scopus (94) Google Scholar]. If true, then it seems clear that multiple daily vertical migrations would only enhance the extent and role of animal-induced mixing. The laboratory experiments performed by Tarling and Johnson [3Tarling G.A. Johnson M.L. Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: R83-R84Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar] provide an insight into the behavior of one important small pelagic species. What is needed now is field verification of the movements of individuals and populations over 24 hr, and the inclusion of this behavior into biogeochemical and other models." @default.
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• W2021116572 title "Krill Migration: Up and Down All Night" @default.
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