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• W2024449330 abstract "Modern science is built on inductive reasoning. Accordingly, all scientific knowledge arises from experience. Scientists collect a large number of observations, or often they replicate an experiment. Later, cautiously and with care to consider all interpretations, they draw inferences based on the available data and generalize from them, formulating general principles and making predictions. If insufficient data have been gathered, inductive science can never achieve absolute certainty even if a high degree of likelihood can be claimed.1 In certain disciplines, such as the medical sciences, experiments provide the basis for induction. That medicine progresses as a result of experimentation was a view already advanced by Claude Bernard.2 However, in practice, the social and human character of medicine obliges us to bear in mind certain inalienable aspects of the human condition. Bernard himself said that scientific progress could not justify trespassing against the well-being of any individual. Experiments must be conducted in a way that shows respect for the ethical principles that have always presided over the practice of medicine, those traditionally attributed to Hippocrates: first, do no harm (primum non nocere).3 Certainly respect for the individual has not always been present. More than once this principle has been violated in experiments performed on groups of persons who were insufficiently informed of what was being done or who could not refuse to participate. In 1714, Charles Maitland inoculated 6 prisoners with smallpox, promising them release4 and Cotton Mather inoculated 2 of his slaves with the virus.5 Antidotes for hemlock were tested in prisoners" @default.
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• W2024449330 date "2011-07-01" @default.
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• W2024449330 title "Ethics in Medical Research in Humans: A Historical Perspective" @default.
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• W2024449330 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adengl.2011.03.002" @default.
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