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• W2025142761 abstract "IProceeding from Homer to Virgil means moving westward from Greece to Rome and advancing seven hundred years to just about three decades before the birth of Christ. After having worked for three years on the pastoral poetry of the Eclogues and for seven years on the philosophical poetry of the Georgics, Virgil (born 70 BCE) composed his epic the Aeneid during the last decade of his life, from 29 to 19 BCE. These were times of transition from republican to imperial Rome, times still troubled by the civil war that broke out between Julius Caesar and his rivals, chiefly Pompey with Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BCE. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in 48 BCE but was assassinated by Brutus, Cassius, and other senators in 44 BCE. The war continued between his assassins and his avengers, with Brutus and his senatorial allies being defeated by Caesar's first lieutenant, Marc Antony, and Octavian, Caesar's nineteen-year-old great-nephew and heir apparent, at Philippi in 42 BCE. Further internecine strife erupted subsequently between Octavian (later to be called Augustus) and Marc Antony, leading to the latter's rout together with his Egyptian consort, Cleopatra, at Actium in 31 BCE. In such tumult and travail, the imperial age was born.This historical background proves crucial for understanding the prophetic import of Virgil's work. Although Virgil is writing about the same mythic-heroic age as Homer-specifically the aftermath of the Trojan War-the weight and role of history have become decisive in his epic, and the turbulences of his own contemporary period take on a new kind of significance for all his representations of the historical and legendary past. The tormented interpretation of his lived present can be seen to infiltrate all his re-creations of the purportedly heroic past and his prophetic projection of a destined future.1The transition from Homer to Virgil also means moving from what can be called 'primary' to 'secondary' epic.2 For the first time, we are now confronted with a highly self-conscious composition by an individual writer. The formulaic, oral style of primary epic is largely conventional and relentlessly repetitious. Recited extemporaneously at solemn occasions, it is designed to be taken in as a rapid succession of verses, with no one verse standing out from the rest. Secondary epic, in contrast, is more intricate and eloquent. As exemplified by Virgil and later in English tradition by Milton, secondary epic prefers a grand, elevated style. This reflects its fundamentally different mode of composition as written rather than orally recited discourse-and as produced, furthermore, by an individual author rather than by a collectivity of bards.Primary epic, moreover, is unreflectively and uncritically heroic in content, as exemplified by Beowulf or the Chanson de Roland, as well as by Homer. Secondary epic generally reinterprets raw heroic content from the point of view of a more sophisticated culture and civilization. This allows also for bringing heroic action into different kinds of historical and literary contexts, making for more self-reflectiveness and complexity. And it creates novel possibilities for parody and irony.The reflection on itself as secondary strongly characterizes secondary epic's own self-presentation in the case of Virgil. The trope of secondariness resounds in searingly regretful, plangent tones throughout the Aeneid. At many turns, Virgil's epic shows itself to be acutely conscious of being a reduction and diminution with respect to its Homeric prototype. This systematic inferiority is betokened most grossly by the fact that the Aeneid consists of only twelve books-as against the twenty-four of each of the Homeric epics.3 The sense of being dwarfed by its unsurpassable predecessor becomes audible in frequent notes of futility and despair that make for a conspicuous contrast with the exuberantly unselfconscious tone of Homeric epic. As if in compensation for the loss of Homer's splendidly uncomplicated self-confidence, the greater narrative and emotional reflectiveness of Virgilian epic creates a distinctive kind of pathos that is interiorized and self-lacerating. …" @default.
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• W2025142761 date "2013-01-01" @default.
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• W2025142761 title "The Secondariness of Virgilian Epic and Its Unprecedented Originality" @default.
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