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• W2034019888 abstract "Hoarseness associated with mitral stenosis was initially described by Ortner. Several cardiopulmonary conditions were associated with left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy over the last 100 years; thus, the syndrome is termed as cardiovocal syndrome or Ortner's syndrome. This study aimed to classify the various predisposing conditions and to explain the pathophysiology and treatment opportunities available for these patients. Hoarseness associated with mitral stenosis was initially described by Ortner. Several cardiopulmonary conditions were associated with left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy over the last 100 years; thus, the syndrome is termed as cardiovocal syndrome or Ortner's syndrome. This study aimed to classify the various predisposing conditions and to explain the pathophysiology and treatment opportunities available for these patients. Nobert Ortner ascribed hoarseness of voice to the left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy (LRLNP) in three patients with severe mitral stenosis.1Ortner N. Recurrenslahmung bei mitral stenose.Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1897; 10: 753-755Google Scholar He postulated that an enlarged left atrium was responsible for the recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy. Although it was initially associated with mitral stenosis, several other case reports suggested that hoarseness can be caused by a myriad of clinical situations (Table 1). The association of hoarseness with a cardiovascular pathology was termed as cardiovocal syndrome. The term cardiovocal syndrome was first comprehensively described in English journals in 1958 by Stocker and Enterline.2Stocker H.H. Enterline H.T. Cardio-vocal syndrome: laryngeal paralysis in intrinsic heart disease.Am Heart J. 1958; 56: 51-59Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (32) Google ScholarTable 1Clinical Conditions Associated with LRLN Palsy1. CongenitalAtrial septal defectVentricular septal defectDouble outlet right ventricleEisenmenger's complexPatent ductus arteriosusEbstein's anomalyAortopulmonary window2.Mitral valve disordersMitral stenosisMitral valve prolapseMitral regurgitation3. Adult disordersLeft atrial enlargementLeft ventricular aneurysmPulmonary hypertension (primary as well as secondary)Ductus aneurysmPulmonary embolismThrombosed giant left atriumTortuosity of great vesselsAtrial myxoma4. Aortic aneurysmsSaccularAtheroscleroticPseudoaneurysmsDissectionsTraumaticMycotic5. IatrogenicClosure of patent ductus arteriosusCardiac surgeryRepair of aortic aneurysmsThoracic surgeryHeart lung transplantDefibrillationAtrial fibrillation ablation procedure6. MiscellaneousForeign body causing oesophago-broncho-aortic fistula Open table in a new tab The nerves that supply the larynx are terminal branches of the vagus nerve. After entering the neck from the jugular foramen, the vagus nerve runs in the carotid sheath between the vein and the artery. It has two main branches that innervate the larynx. The superior laryngeal nerve that runs behind the internal carotid artery divides into internal and external laryngeal nerves. The internal laryngeal nerve, along with the superior laryngeal artery, pierces the thyrohyoid membrane and serves as a sensory nerve supply to the pyriform fossa and mucous membranes above the vocal cords. The external laryngeal nerve runs along with the superior thyroid artery beneath the thyroid gland and supplies the cricothyroid muscle. Recurrent laryngeal nerve is also another terminal branch of the vagus nerve that innervates the larynx with a different course on each side. On the right side, it crosses the first part of the subclavian artery and hooks around to travel between the trachea and oesophagus. On the left, the recurrent laryngeal nerve arises from the left vagal trunk in the thorax when it crosses the arch of aorta and hooks around the ligamentum arteriosum and ascends in the groove between the trachea and the oesophagus. The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply all the muscles of the larynx except cricothyroid as well as sensory supply to the larynx below the vocal cords and the upper part of trachea. The LRLN paralysis causes the left vocal cord to be in the paramedian position; on a laryngoscopy, the position can be variable. Symptoms include hoarseness, dysphagia, and shortness of breath during speech because of loss of air, which is secondary to glottic incompetence. Effective cough cannot be mounted. LRLN palsy can be a significant risk for aspiration because the paralysed vocal cord cannot protect from aspiration especially from liquids. The degree of symptoms depends on the extent of paresis and compensation by the other vocal cord. LRLN palsy during the immediate postoperative period can also lead to reduction in pulmonary function as a result of loss of natural positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) that occurs with normal glottic closure. A prospective study from Scotland suggested that left sided recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy is more common than the right recurrent laryngeal palsy and it is more common in men and can occur in any age group. Lung cancer was the most common cause (42%) and surgical manipulation accounted for 24% of the cases. The idiopathic causes that included the cardiovocal syndrome accounted for less than 11% of the cases.34Loughran S. Alves C. MacGregor F.B. Current aetiology of unilateral vocal fold paralysis in a teaching hospital in the West of Scotland.J Laryngol Otol. 2002; 116: 907-910Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar However, in the same study, LRLN palsy caused by lung cancer was noted to be high compared to the previous studies. Cardiovocal syndrome was described in various congenital abnormalities like atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, and type 2 aortopulmonary window.3Condon L.M. Katkov H. Singh A. Helseth H.K. Cardiovocal syndrome in infancy.Pediatrics. 1985; 76: 22-25PubMed Google Scholar, 4Chan P. Lee C.P. Ko J.T. Hung J.S. Cardiovocal (Ortner's) syndrome left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy associated with cardiovascular disease.Eur J Med. 1992; 1: 492-495PubMed Google Scholar It was also associated with double outlet right ventricle,5Robida A. Povhe B. Cardiovocal syndrome in an infant with a double outlet of the right ventricle.Eur J Pediatr. 1988; 148: 15-16Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar Ebstein's anomaly,6Krishnamurthy S.N. Paulose K.O. Vocal cord paralysis with Ebstein's anomaly.J Laryngol Otol. 1989; 103: 626-628Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar patent ductus arteriosus (PDA),7Borow K.M. Hessel S.J. Sloss L.J. Fistulous aneurysm of ductus arteriosus.Br Heart J. 1981; 45: 467-470Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar and Eisenmenger's complex.8Sengupta A. Dubey S.P. Chaudhuri D. Sinha A.K. Chakravarti P. Ortner's syndrome revisited.J Laryngol Otol. 1998; 112: 377-379Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Ductal ligation and transcatheter closure of PDA is associated with a risk of LRLN palsy.9Fan L.L. Campbell D.N. Clarke D.R. Washington R.L. Fix E.J. White C.W. Paralyzed left vocal cord associated with ligation of patent ductus arteriosus.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1989; 98: 611-613PubMed Google Scholar, 10Liang C.D. Ko S.F. Huang S.C. Huang C.F. Niu C.K. Vocal cord paralysis after transcatheter coil embolization of patent ductus arteriosus.Am Heart J. 2003; 146: 367-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar Infants, who are less than 1500 g, premature, and younger, are have a higher risk of developing LRLN palsy.9Fan L.L. Campbell D.N. Clarke D.R. Washington R.L. Fix E.J. White C.W. Paralyzed left vocal cord associated with ligation of patent ductus arteriosus.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1989; 98: 611-613PubMed Google Scholar, 11Zbar R.I. Chen A.H. Behrendt D.M. Bell E.F. Smith R.J. Incidence of vocal fold paralysis in infants undergoing ligation of patent ductus arteriosus.Ann Thorac Surg. 1996; 61: 814-816Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar The use of clips had a higher rate of LRLN palsy compared with the use of suture ligatures. Transcatheter approach for closure of PDA in a patient with long ductus and narrow diameter is associated with a higher risk for vocal cord palsy.10Liang C.D. Ko S.F. Huang S.C. Huang C.F. Niu C.K. Vocal cord paralysis after transcatheter coil embolization of patent ductus arteriosus.Am Heart J. 2003; 146: 367-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar Left atrial enlargement in association with giant thrombus,12Rimon D. Cohen L. Rosenfeld J. Thrombosed giant left atrium mimicking a mediastinal tumor.Chest. 1977; 71: 406-408Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar mitral stenosis,1Ortner N. Recurrenslahmung bei mitral stenose.Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1897; 10: 753-755Google Scholar mitral valve prolapse,13Kishan C.V. Wongpraparut N. Adeleke K. Frechie P. Kotler M.N. Ortner's syndrome in association with mitral valve prolapse.Clin Cardiol. 2000; 23: 295-297Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar mitral regurgitation,14Balfour Jr., H.H. Ayoub E.M. Hoarseness as the presenting symptom of mitral insufficiency.JAMA. 1968; 204: 1190-1193Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar and atrial myxoma15Rubens F. Goldstein W. Hickey N. Dennie C. Keon W. Hoarseness secondary to left atrial myxoma.Chest. 1989; 95: 1139-1140Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar has been described to cause LRLN palsy. The incidence of cardiovocal syndrome in mitral stenosis ranges from 0.6% to 5%.16Solanki S.V. Yajnik V.H. Ortner's syndrome.Indian Heart J. 1972; 24: 43-46PubMed Google Scholar LRLN palsy has also been reported with cardiac defibrillation17Victoria L. Graham S.M. Karnell M.P. Hoffman H.T. Vocal fold paralysis secondary to cardiac countershock (cardioversion).J Voice. 1999; 13: 414-416Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (4) Google Scholar and transcatheter ablation of atrial fibrillation.18Pai R.K. Boyle N.G. Child J.S. Shivkumar K. Transient left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy following catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation.Heart Rhythm. 2005; 2: 182-184Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (18) Google Scholar Isolated ductus aneurysm can also be present in adults with hoarseness of voice.19Day J.R. Walesby R.K. A spontaneous ductal aneurysm presenting with left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy.Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 72: 608-609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (14) Google Scholar Primary pulmonary hypertension21Kagal A.E. Shenoy P.N. Nair K.G. Ortner's syndrome associated with primary pulmonary hypertension.J Postgrad Med. 1975; 21: 91-95PubMed Google Scholar and several secondary causes of pulmonary hypertension including pulmonary embolism20Albertini R.E. Vocal cord paralysis associated with pulmonary emboli.Chest. 1972; 62: 508-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar can cause LRLN palsy. Left ventricular aneurysm22Eng J. Nair K.K. Giant left ventricular aneurysm.J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 1993; 34: 85-86PubMed Google Scholar and tortuosity of the great vessels23Miglets A.W. Adam J.S. Vocal cord paralysis. Association with superior mediastinal widening secondary to tortuosity of the great vessels.Arch Otolaryngol. 1982; 108: 112-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar in the mediastinum were also associated with left recurrent nerve palsy. Aneurysms of aorta and the pulmonary artery24El-Ahmady L.M. Left vocal cord paralysis in bilharzial pulmonary aneurysm (case report).J Egypt Med Assoc. 1974; 57: 232-236PubMed Google Scholar were reported to cause LRLN palsy. The aneurysms of the aorta can be traumatic,25Woodson G.E. Kendrick B. Laryngeal paralysis as the presenting sign of aortic trauma.Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1989; 115: 1100-1102Crossref PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar saccular,26Kamp O. van Rossum A.C. Torenbeek R. Transesophageal echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging for the assessment of saccular aneurysm of the transverse thoracic aorta.Int J Cardiol. 1991; 33: 330-333Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar atherosclerotic, mycotic,28Chan P. Huang J.J. Yang Y.J. Left vocal cord palsy: an unusual presentation of a mycotic aneurysm of the aorta caused by Salmonella cholerasuis.Scand J Infect Dis. 1994; 26: 219-221Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar and pseudoaneurysm27Razzouk A. Gundry S. Wang N. Heyner R. Sciolaro C. Van Arsdell G. Bansal R. Vyhmeister E. Bailey L. Pseudoaneurysms of the aorta after cardiac surgery or chest trauma.Am Surg. 1993; 59: 818-823PubMed Google Scholar and can have an associated dissection.29Harano M. Tanemoto K. Kuinose M. Kanaoka Y. Kagawa S. Yoshioka T. A case of chronic traumatic dissecting aneurysm of the thoracic aorta.Kyobu Geka. 1994; 47: 1023-1025PubMed Google Scholar Repair of aneurysms have also been associated with this syndrome. The incidence of postsurgery hoarseness because of RLN palsy was 32%. The incidence, which was much higher when the surgery was done for type A aneurysms, was around 65%. Most patients still have hoarseness of voice six months after surgery.30Ishimoto S. Ito K. Toyama M. Kawase I. Kondo K. Oshima K. Niimi S. Vocal cord paralysis after surgery for thoracic aortic aneurysm.Chest. 2002; 121: 1911-1915Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar Paediatric, adult cardiothoracic surgery,32Tewari P. Aggarwal S.K. Combined left-sided recurrent laryngeal and phrenic nerve palsy after coronary artery operation.Ann Thorac Surg. 1996; 61: 1721-1722Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar, 33Jeffry R.R. Fabri B.M. Fox M.A. Left vocal cord paralysis after mobilisation of the internal mammary artery.Thorax. 1988; 43: 941-942Crossref PubMed Scopus (3) Google Scholar and heart–lung transplant31Murty G.E. Smith M.C. Recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy following heart-lung transplantation: three cases of vocal cord augmentation in the acute phase.J Laryngol Otol. 1989; 103: 968-969Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar has been associated with LRLN palsy. Foreign body, induced oesophago-bronchial-aortic fistula, has been associated with LRLN palsy.35Taha A.S. Nakshabendi I. Russell R.I. Vocal cord paralysis and oesophago-broncho-aortic fistula complicating foreign body-induced oesophageal perforation.Postgrad Med J. 1992; 68: 277-278Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar In 1990, Sunderland classified nerve injuries into five major types with prognostication with each class and modified the previous Sneddon's classification (Table 2). He suggested a classification depending on injury to different parts of the nerve. Class I injuries with virtually no damage to the nerve were associated with complete recovery, whereas class V injuries with disruption of perineurium had a dismal prognosis unless the offending agent is removed and surgical reconstruction of the nerve is done.36Sunderland S. The anatomy and physiology of nerve injury.Muscle Nerve. 1990; 13: 771-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google ScholarTable 2Sunderland's Classification of Nerve InjuriesClass I (neuropraxia)Slight pressure with no axonal disruptment but a conduction block. Nerve conduction potentials can be induced below the lesion. Excellent recovery after offending agent is removed.Class II (axonotmesis)More severe lesion causing wallerian degeneration. Connective tissue elements remain in place providing framework for regeneration. Recovery usually occurs once offending agent is removed but is delayed.Class III (neurotmesis)Injury causes disruption of endoneurium. Aberrant regeneration causes incomplete recovery and synkineisClass IV (neurotmesis)Injury causes disruption of perineurium. The potential for aberrant regeneration is greater and intramural scarring prevents nerve fibers from reaching the muscleClass V (neurotmesis)Complete transaction of a nerve with disruption of perineurium. There is no hope for recovery unless the ends are surgically connected Open table in a new tab Ortner initially postulated that enlarged left atrium pushing up the LRLN and compressing against the arch of aorta was responsible for the palsy. However, a series of careful autopsies and radiological studies in the early part of the 20th century disputed his hypothesis. On the basis of the autopsy studies, Fetterrolf and Norris showed that the distance between the aorta and pulmonary artery within the aortic window is only 4 mm and suggested that compression of the nerve between the two structures is responsible for palsy.37Fetterolf G. Norris G. The anatomical explanation of paralysis of left recurrent laryngeal nerve found in certain case of mitral stenosis.Am J Med Sci. 1911; 141: 625-638Crossref Google Scholar This hypothesis was further strengthened when compression of LRLN was observed by Ari et al. between aorta and pulmonary artery near the ligamentum arteriosum in patients with mitral stenosis undergoing mitral commissurotomy.38Ari R. Harvey W.P. Hufnagel C.A. Etiology of hoarseness associated with mitral stenosis: improvement following mitral surgery.Am Heart J. 1955; 50: 153-160Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (16) Google Scholar The authors of the present study believe that the causes of LRLN palsy can be broadly classified as mechanical, electrical or thermal energy leading to palsy and ischemic causes. Pressure on the LRLN by various structures in the mediastinum can cause palsy and chance of recovery depends on the degree and duration of injury. LRLN caused by defibrillation and ablation catheters is associated with very good prognosis. Ischaemic causes generally occur during cardiothoracic surgery of manipulation of any of the vessels in the chest in close proximity with the vessels that supply the LRLN. Ischaemic causes are not generally associated with positive outcome. Clinical recognition of hoarseness in patients with cardiovascular disease is important because prompt referral can be made for laryngoscopy for confirmation of LRLN palsy. A prompt assessment for aspiration, increased vocal effort, altered voice quality, dyspnoea on exertion, and decreased quality of life should be made. If the symptoms are well tolerated with out any evidence of aspiration, a reassessment of laryngeal function can be made within a year. The physiological basis of surgery is the medialisation of the paralysed vocal cord so that glottic space closes during phonation and the normal vocal cord can make contact with the paralysed one. There are two absolute indications for surgery: aspiration pneumonia and patient's desire to improve his voice-related quality of life (professionals like singers).39Hartl D.M. Travagli J.P. Leboulleux S. Baudin E. Brasnu D.F. Schlumberger M. Clinical review: current concepts in the management of unilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis after thyroid surge.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90: 3084-3088Crossref PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar Patients with underlying lung disease and are at high risk for aspiration as well as those who remain symptomatic after a year of observation should also be strongly considered for surgery. Vocal cord medialisation can be done via an endoscopic approach (injection techniques) or by an external approach (cervicotomy to insert an implant). Laryngeal innervation techniques do not improve mobility in a predictable fashion and are not used routinely. A variety of substances like fat,40Laccourreye O. Paczona R. Ageel M. Hans S. Brasnu D. Crevier-Buchman L. Intracordal autologous fat injection for aspiration after recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis.Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1999; 256: 458-461Crossref PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar, 41Rosen C.A. Phonosurgical. Vocal fold injection: procedures and materials.Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2000; 33: 1087-1096Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar collagen, autologous minced facia lata and heterologous dermis have been used for injection into vocal cords. Medialisation thyroplasty can be done by making a small incision in the neck and by inserting a silicone, gore-tex, or hydroxyapatite implant.42Carrau R.L. Pou A. Eibling D.E. Murry T. Ferguson B.J. Laryngeal framework surgery for the management of aspiration.Head Neck. 1999; 21: 139-145Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar Speech therapy is controversial in therapy for RLNP. It does not hasten innervation although it might help to breathe easily and provide psychological support. It might be counterproductive after laryngeal framework surgery. Although surgical therapy may alleviate the symptoms of RLNP, the goal of clinicians should be prevention of iatrogenic RLNP, prompt recognition of clinical features, and early referral to a specialist to reduce mortality and morbidity." @default.
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• W2034019888 title "Cardiovocal Syndrome: A Systematic Review" @default.
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