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• W2037296827 abstract "In this issue of Neuron, Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar demonstrate that electric stimulation of primate ON parasol ganglion cells evokes spiking patterns similar to those elicited by visual motion. This work represents progress in the development of cell-type-specific retinal prosthetics for vision restoration. In this issue of Neuron, Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar demonstrate that electric stimulation of primate ON parasol ganglion cells evokes spiking patterns similar to those elicited by visual motion. This work represents progress in the development of cell-type-specific retinal prosthetics for vision restoration. Retinal degenerative diseases are a leading cause of blindness in the developed world. Retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration drive photoreceptor degeneration and lead to severe vision loss and blindness. However, in these diseases the retinal neurons that are downstream of photoreceptors are less affected. These remaining neurons open a possible inroad for ectopic stimulation of the retina, allowing the optic nerve to continue to carry useful visual information to the rest of the brain. To date, two different ectopic stimulation techniques have been proposed: either using electronic implants to activate cells with extracellular currents (Weiland and Humayun, 2014Weiland J.D. Humayun M.S. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2014; 61: 1412-1424Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar) or using optogenetic approaches to activate cells with transmembrane currents (Busskamp and Roska, 2011Busskamp V. Roska B. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2011; 21: 942-946Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar). Recently, electronic implants have been approved for use in humans, but their capacity for restoring useful visual behavior remains limited. Why does electric stimulation of retinal cells in blind patients restore such limited visual function, while the same approach in the auditory system of deaf patients leads to robust restoration of hearing ability, including speech recognition (Géléoc and Holt, 2014Géléoc G.S. Holt J.R. Science. 2014; 344: 1241062Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar)? The answer likely lies in the organization of the neuronal circuits in the front end of the visual versus the auditory system. The retina is a sophisticated neuronal computer with more than 60 circuit elements each performing a well-defined task in visual processing (Masland, 2012Masland R.H. Neuron. 2012; 76: 266-280Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (598) Google Scholar, Gollisch and Meister, 2010Gollisch T. Meister M. Neuron. 2010; 65: 150-164Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (433) Google Scholar), whereas the neuronal circuit in the inner ear is much simpler, incorporating the sensory hair cells arranged in a clear tonotopic pattern and the processes of second-order neurons (Géléoc and Holt, 2014Géléoc G.S. Holt J.R. Science. 2014; 344: 1241062Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar). The retinal circuit elements are organized into ∼20 circuit mosaics (Dacey, 2004Dacey D.M. Origins of perception: retinal ganglion cell diversity and the creation of parallel visual pathways.in: Gazzaniga M.S. The Cognitive Neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge2004: 281-301Google Scholar), each covering the entire spatial extent of the retina and each extracting a specific visual feature from the image flow that enters our eyes. The output of each retinal circuit mosaic is via a specific type of retinal ganglion cell and the rest of the brain is informed of the visual world through the ∼20 neuronal movies encoded as space-time patterns of spikes from these ∼20 types of ganglion cells (Azeredo da Silveira and Roska, 2011Azeredo da Silveira R. Roska B. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2011; 21: 664-671Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar). How can we restore visual function to such a complex visual computer as the retina? One ambitious possibility is to simulate and play back all 20 ganglion cell mosaics with the same spike patterns as would normally be produced in them during natural vision. To be more realistic, we could rank the 20 ganglion cell types in terms of importance for visual tasks that would be most useful for blind patients—such as reading, face recognition, and motion analysis—and then focus on stimulating only these ganglion cell types. While there is no causal evidence regarding the types of ganglion cells that participate in defined visual functions in humans, most vision scientists would posit that the so-called ON and OFF midget cells are probably the most important cell types involved in reading and face recognition (Dacey, 1993Dacey D.M. J. Neurosci. 1993; 13: 5334-5355PubMed Google Scholar), while ON and OFF parasol cells are probably involved in motion analysis (Merigan and Maunsell, 1990Merigan W.H. Maunsell J.H. Vis. Neurosci. 1990; 5: 347-352Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar). Let’s now enumerate the steps needed to restore the relevant spike patterns to these four ganglion cell types in blind patients. First, we would need a high-resolution multielectrode array that is implanted above the retinal ganglion cells and is able to selectively stimulate, in a given area, all ganglion cells, both individually and in defined groups. Second, we would have to categorize each ganglion cell in a blind retina into five classes: ON midget, OFF midget, ON parasol, OFF parasol, and the rest. Third, we would need to determine the four mathematical transformations, the four “retinal codes,” which model the computations by the four circuit mosaics of healthy patients that turn the visual scene into the relevant space-time patterns of spikes. Fourth, we would need a wide-angle, high-resolution camera mounted on a goggle that mimics the photoreceptor layer and turns the visual flow into a space-time electric signal. Fifth, we would require an eye tracker and a related microcomputer that measures the position of the eye and selects regions of interest (ROIs) in the camera output that correspond to the size of the electrode array. Sixth, we would have to compute, in real time, the output of the four retinal codes based on the visual pattern in the ROI. Seventh, we would then have to play back the spike pattern outputs, with high fidelity, to the four ganglion cell mosaics. Executing all seven steps is a daunting task. However, it is not impossible. In this issue of Neuron, Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar report a step toward this engineering tour de force. Their work shows the remarkable feat of being able to stimulate a small mosaic of six ON parasol ganglion cells of the primate retina with exquisite timing and resolution so as to mimic the response of ON parasol cells to a moving bar of light. They use a healthy primate retina since this allows them to ignore a difficult step, namely identifying retinal cell types in blind retinae, and instead use visual stimulation to identify ganglion cell types (Jepson et al., 2013Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Mathieson K. Gunning D.E. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. J. Neurosci. 2013; 33: 7194-7205Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar). After identifying six neighboring ON parasol cells, Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar adjusted the stimulation protocol such that they could effectively stimulate individual cells with high fidelity. Importantly, they show that electrical stimulation of ON parasol cells is specific, driving little off-target activity in neighboring OFF parasol cells. Next, they measured the visual response of this population of ON parasol cells to a moving bar and then simulated the moving bar by electrically stimulating the cells based on the timing of action potentials in response to the moving bar. Finally, Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar used the electrically stimulated responses to predict the speed of the simulated moving stimulus. While this study demonstrates an important development toward a retinal prosthetic design that could mimic the natural activity of specific ganglion cell types, there are still major hurdles to cross before such an approach can be used in blind patients. First, as far as stimulation of selective cell types goes, future work will need to demonstrate the ability to independently stimulate both ON and OFF parasol cells in the same retinal region. A similar demonstration will then be needed for both ON and OFF midget cells. Second, as mentioned before, these four retinal ganglion cell types will need to be detected in blind retinae where one does not have access to normal visual responses. This is a central problem to this technique. It is possible that spike autocorrelations of different ganglion cell types (Devries and Baylor, 1997Devries S.H. Baylor D.A. J. Neurophysiol. 1997; 78: 2048-2060PubMed Google Scholar) in blind retinae are similar within a given type and differ across type, which would facilitate the detection of types. However, this technique remains conjecture and would require testing in a primate model of photoreceptor degeneration, which is not available. Third, as discussed by Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar, their device, which is a version of an epiretinal implant, is designed for use in the peripheral retina, which for humans and primates is mainly used for low-resolution peripheral vision. This technique would therefore be less suitable for patients suffering from the most common retinal degenerative disease, age-related macular degeneration, in which vision originating from the fovea—the part of the retina that provides high-resolution vision—is lost. Using an epiretinal implant to effectively stimulate the foveal ganglion cells will probably prove difficult as the fovea has a very high resolution, with a “private line” from photoreceptors to ganglion cells (Dacey, 2000Dacey D.M. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2000; 23: 743-775Crossref PubMed Scopus (279) Google Scholar), so any blur in electric stimulation will severely degrade vision restoration attempts. Additionally, foveal stimulation will prove difficult since the ganglion cells that receive input from foveal photoreceptors are displaced laterally out of the fovea and are piled on each other three dimensionally, meaning that it will be difficult to use the spatial location of these ganglion cells as a landmark for knowing which part of the visual world they will encode. Despite these hurdles and limitations, the innovation provided by Jepson et al., 2014Jepson L.H. Hottowy P. Weiner G.A. Dabrowski W. Litke A.M. Chichilnisky E.J. Neuron. 2014; 83 (this issue): 87-92Scopus (57) Google Scholar is significant and the cell-type-specific stimulation approach they propose may lead to improvements in the utility of electronic implants for blind patients. These are exciting times for the field of vision restoration. Aside from the above-mentioned techniques, advances are also being made in stem cell (Singh et al., 2013Singh M.S. Charbel Issa P. Butler R. Martin C. Lipinski D.M. Sekaran S. Barnard A.R. MacLaren R.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2013; 110: 1101-1106Crossref PubMed Scopus (185) Google Scholar) and gene therapy (Sahel and Roska, 2013Sahel J.A. Roska B. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2013; 36: 467-488Crossref PubMed Scopus (111) Google Scholar) methods to restore vision. With so many different studies currently in clinical trials (see http://www.clinicaltrials.gov), and so much basic research being targeted toward designing new and better techniques, the dream of restoring useful visual functions to patients with retinal degeneration is not out of reach. B.R. is on the scientific advisory board for GenSight Biologics. S.T. receives funding from the Human Frontier Science Program (LT000173/2013). High-Fidelity Reproduction of Spatiotemporal Visual Signals for Retinal ProsthesisJepson et al.NeuronJune 5, 2014In BriefJepson et al. show that electrical stimulation can produce natural spatiotemporal patterns of electrical activity in the primate retina. The results suggest that a retinal prosthesis could in principle provide high-fidelity artificial visual signals to the brain. Full-Text PDF Open Archive" @default.
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• W2037296827 title "Cell-Type-Specific Electric Stimulation for Vision Restoration" @default.
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