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• W2040254909 abstract "No clear clinical guidelines exist on how to counsel male cancer patients about fertility preservation. Detailed counseling is recommended before treatment when issues of collection and storage need to be highlighted. Concern about the quality of sperm collected before and/or after treatment in terms of assisted reproduction is needed, and the potential outcomes should be discussed early as part of cancer survivorship. The discussion should be sensitive and tailored to the ethical situation based on the age of the patient, the severity of the illness, the need to initiate treatment, and genetic risk. Cryopreservation should be attempted/achieved before cancer treatment is initiated. Cryopreservation should not be performed during treatment or for some time after treatment because of the chromosomal and structural damage to sperm from cancer treatment. Contraception should be instigated during this period. No clear clinical guidelines exist on how to counsel male cancer patients about fertility preservation. Detailed counseling is recommended before treatment when issues of collection and storage need to be highlighted. Concern about the quality of sperm collected before and/or after treatment in terms of assisted reproduction is needed, and the potential outcomes should be discussed early as part of cancer survivorship. The discussion should be sensitive and tailored to the ethical situation based on the age of the patient, the severity of the illness, the need to initiate treatment, and genetic risk. Cryopreservation should be attempted/achieved before cancer treatment is initiated. Cryopreservation should not be performed during treatment or for some time after treatment because of the chromosomal and structural damage to sperm from cancer treatment. Contraception should be instigated during this period. Discuss: You can discuss this article with its authors and with other ASRM members at http://fertstertforum.com/nangiaak-guidelines-sperm-cryopreservation-cancer/ Discuss: You can discuss this article with its authors and with other ASRM members at http://fertstertforum.com/nangiaak-guidelines-sperm-cryopreservation-cancer/ Fertility preservation for male cancer patients is an important aspect of cancer management and survivorship. A survey of 904 men from a multi-institutional study in 2002 found that 51% to 70% of young male cancer survivors wanted children in the future, including 77% who were childless at the time of cancer diagnosis (1Schover L.R. Brey K. Lichtin A. Lipshultz L.I. Jeha S. Knowledge and experience regarding cancer, infertility, and sperm banking in younger male survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 1880-1889Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar). Only 24% of the young male cancer patients, which included 37% of childless men, actually banked sperm. The most common reason was found to be lack of information (1Schover L.R. Brey K. Lichtin A. Lipshultz L.I. Jeha S. Knowledge and experience regarding cancer, infertility, and sperm banking in younger male survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 1880-1889Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar). Another study by Schrover et al. (2Schover L.R. Brey K. Lichtin A. Lipshultz L.I. Jeha S. Oncologists' attitudes and practices regarding banking sperm before cancer treatment.J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 1890-1897Crossref PubMed Scopus (287) Google Scholar) in 2002 looked at oncologists' attitudes and practices regarding banking of sperm before cancer treatment and found 91% of the 718 oncologists consulted agreed sperm banking should be offered to all men before treatment. Forty-eight percent of the oncologists never brought up the topic or mentioned it to less than 25% of eligible men. The main reasons cited were the lack of time for the discussion, high costs, and lack of convenient facilities. Since that time, the America Society of Clinical Oncologists (ASCO) in 2006, and later in 2013, recommended that oncologists counsel cancer patients about fertility preservation as part of their cancer treatment plan (3Lee S.J. Schover L.R. Partridge A.H. Patrizio P. Wallace W.H. Hagerty K. et al.American Society of Clinical Oncology recommendations on fertility preservation in cancer patients.J Clin Oncol. 2006; 24: 2917-2931Crossref PubMed Scopus (1548) Google Scholar, 4Loren A.W. Mangu P.B. Beck L.N. Brennan L. Magdalinski A.J. Partridge A.H. et al.Fertility preservation for patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline Update.J Clin Oncol. 2013; 31: 2500-2510Crossref PubMed Scopus (1080) Google Scholar). In 2010, the Survey for Adolescent Reproduction (SPARE) assessed pediatric oncology specialists' attitudes and practice patterns toward fertility preservation since the introduction of the 2006 ASCO recommendations. They showed only 46% respondents reported that they refer male pubertal cancer patients to a fertility specialist before cancer treatment >50% of the time. Although 44% of respondents were familiar with the 2006 ASCO recommendations, only 39% used them to guide decision-making in more than half of their patients (5Köhler T.S. Kondapalli L.A. Shah A. Chan S. Woodruff T.K. Brannigan R.E. Results from the survey for preservation of adolescent reproduction (SPARE) study: gender disparity in delivery of fertility preservation message to adolescents with cancer.J Assist Reprod Genet. 2011; 28: 269-277Crossref PubMed Scopus (141) Google Scholar). Oncologist need to have a rudimentary understanding of fertility preservation or at minimum should contact a specialist center for advice about specific details. Many oncologists may not feel comfortable discussing basic important facts such as the methods and indications for assisted reproductive technology (ART) that might be needed in the future (e.g., intrauterine insemination [IUI] vs. in vitro fertilization [IVF]). It is incumbent on specialists in the field of male and female reproduction to educate their oncologic colleagues on this issue (6American Society of Reproductive MedicineFertility preservation and reproduction in cancer patients.Fertil Steril. 2005; 83: 1622-1628Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (369) Google Scholar). However, there are no clinical guidelines to help providers with the issues that are involved with the process of counseling patients on sperm cryopreservation, and how it is arranged and when to use or not to use the sperm. Ideally, counseling needs to be framed in the form of before, during, and after cancer treatment. This can be a very challenging counseling session in situations when patients are often trying to come to terms with their cancer diagnosis; have constitutional symptoms of their disease to make informed decision making and semen collection difficult; and when cancer treatment often needs to be initiated very soon, sometimes within hours. Ethical dilemmas like this need to be addressed with patients and families (6American Society of Reproductive MedicineFertility preservation and reproduction in cancer patients.Fertil Steril. 2005; 83: 1622-1628Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (369) Google Scholar). It cannot be forgotten or ignored, that despite the improved survivorship rates from cancer, a number of patients will die from their cancer. Hallak et al. (7Hallak J. Sharma R.K. Thomas A.J. Agarwal A. Why cancer patients request disposal of cryopreserved semen specimens posttherapy: a retrospective study.Fertil Steril. 1998; 69: 889-893Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar) showed that 37% of the cryopreserved sperm discarded was due to death of the patient. This reiterates the need to discuss the proviso for using or discarding stored sperm in the event of death before the planned cryopreservation (8American Society of Reproductive MedicinePosthumous collection and use of reproductive tissue: a committee opinion.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 1842-1845Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar). This is a difficult and sensitive discussion when patients are worried about their own mortality, but it cannot be avoided. The issue of a named partner who may be allowed to use the sperm posthumously needs to be explicit. If there is no named partner, the ethics and legalities of who has permission to acquire the specimens and who can use the specimens becomes an issue. This is especially important with minors who need parental written permission to proceed with cryopreservation. The rules of individual institutions, states, and countries will dictate this issue (8American Society of Reproductive MedicinePosthumous collection and use of reproductive tissue: a committee opinion.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 1842-1845Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar). These important issues and dilemmas should be discussed with patients and oncologists alike during the different stages of cancer care/treatment. The question of how many samples to freeze is determined by the quality of sperm provided (9Barratt C.L. Clements S. Kessopoulou E. Semen characteristics and fertility tests required for storage of spermatozoa.Humanit Rep. 1998; 13: 1-11Crossref Scopus (18) Google Scholar). This depends on the health of the patient and the type of cancer. It has been shown that the semen parameters of oncology patients before cancer treatment (both before freezing and after thawing) are worse than those of healthy donors (10Agarwal A. Semen banking in patients with cancer: 20-year experience.Int J Androl. 2000; 23: 16-19Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar). Hotaling et al. (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar) demonstrated that of the cancers evaluated, prostate cancer had the best prefreeze total motile count (TMC) and lymphoid leukemia had the worst. Of all parameters, motility has been shown to be affected most in cancer patients compared with controls (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar, 12Hallak J. Mahran A. Chae J. Agarwal A. Poor semen quality from patients with malignancies does not rule out sperm banking.Urol Res. 2000; 28: 281-284Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar). This pathophysiologic behavior of sperm before and after cryopreservation allows for subtle and specialized counseling for different types of cancer, as well as the need to possibly cryopreserve more vials for certain cancers (e.g., testicular cancer and leukemia) (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar, 13Lass A. Akagbosu F. Abusheikha N. Hassouneh M. Blayney M. Avery S. et al.A programme of semen cryopreservation for patients with malignant disease in a tertiary infertility centre: lessons from 8 years' experience.Hum Reprod. 1998; 13: 3256-3261Crossref PubMed Scopus (142) Google Scholar, 14van Casteren N.J. Boellaard W.P. Romijn J.C. Dohle G.R. Gonadal dysfunction in male cancer patients before cytotoxic treatment.Int J Androl. 2010; 33: 73-79Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). Sperm quality also depends on the abstinence period between semen collections. When the cancer treatment needs to start quickly, a change in the normal abstinence paradigm of 2 to 5 days for sperm collection can be replaced with a more frequent collection schedule, although this may affect the quality of the sperm cryopreserved. In a study involving cancer patients, Agarwal et al. (15Agarwal A. Sidhu R.K. Shekarriz M. Thomas A.J. Optimum abstinence time for cryopreservation of semen in cancer patients.J Urol. 1995; 154: 86-88Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar) showed semen collection for cryopreservation after 24 to ≤48 hours of abstinence resulted in post-thaw quality comparable to that after an abstinence of 48 to ≤72 hours or longer (15Agarwal A. Sidhu R.K. Shekarriz M. Thomas A.J. Optimum abstinence time for cryopreservation of semen in cancer patients.J Urol. 1995; 154: 86-88Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar). The andrology laboratory plays an important role in determining the patient's future fertility fate and the type of ART that will be needed. Sperm quality will determine the cryopreservation process, especially the number of sperm per vial and the number of vials cryopreserved. This in turn will predict the potential future use of each vial for IUI or IVF and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The concept of ART may seem very abstract at the pretreatment stage for cancer, especially when the sperm parameters are not yet known and patients are overwhelmed with their potential options. However, patients need to understand which potential method of ART may be needed in the future because the cost of freezing and the type of ART are often financially prohibitive. Patients do not always have a chance to think about or understand the economic benefits of pretreatment cryopreservation versus costly sperm recovery and more expensive ART alternatives after treatment. Overall this can be difficult to discuss during early pretreatment counseling for cancer, as fertility may not be the first priority of the patient, partner, or family. Many providers and andrology laboratories may freeze initially to spare patients this discussion at a difficult time, then provide them with financial counseling at a later date, which requires delicacy. The method of cryopreservation (slow freeze vs. vitrification) will affect sperm recovery; historically, approximately 50% of sperm survive from the freezing process (16Nijs M. Ombelet W. Cryopreservation of human sperm.Hum Fertil (Camb). 2001; 4: 158-163Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar, 17Polge C. Smith A.U. Parkes A.S. Revival of spermatozoa after vitrification and dehydration at low temperatures.Nature. 1949; 164: 666Crossref PubMed Scopus (1109) Google Scholar, 18Bunge R.G. Sherman J.K. Fertilizing capacity of frozen human spermatozoa.Nature. 1953; 172: 767-768Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar, 19Bagchi A. Woods E.J. Critser J.K. Cryopreservation and vitrification: recent advances in fertility preservation technologies.Expert Rev Med Devices. 2008; 5: 359-370Crossref PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar, 20Isachenko E. Isachenko V. Katkov I.I. Rahimi G. Schöndorf T. Mallmann P. et al.DNA integrity and motility of human spermatozoa after standard slow freezing versus cryoprotectant-free vitrification.Hum Reprod. 2004; 19: 932-939Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar). However, sperm from cancer patients appears to behave differently. Myeloid leukemia has been shown to have the lowest postthaw TMC and the largest reduction in TMC after cryopreservation (89%). Testicular cancer and both myeloid and lymphoid leukemias have statistically significant lower sperm survival (viability) rates (44.8%, 32.1%, and 35.1%, respectively) compared with a procreative management (control) group (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar). Multivariate analysis of the different oncologic diagnoses has shown testicular cancer has the lowest chance of a postthaw TMC >5 million (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar). Improvement and maximizing sperm recovery from cryopreservation techniques is important. Newer data support vitrification for low sperm concentration to improve postthaw survival (20Isachenko E. Isachenko V. Katkov I.I. Rahimi G. Schöndorf T. Mallmann P. et al.DNA integrity and motility of human spermatozoa after standard slow freezing versus cryoprotectant-free vitrification.Hum Reprod. 2004; 19: 932-939Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar, 21Hossain A.M. Osuamkpe C.O. Sole use of sucrose in human sperm cryopreservation.Arch Androl. 2007; 53: 99-103Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar). As candidates for IUI before freezing may become candidates for IVF after thawing, recoverability of more viable sperm from such samples can have huge implications for couples in terms of the level of medical intervention, ethical considerations, and ART costs. In terms of the number of sperm required for successful IUI, the literature is mixed. It depends on multiple factors both male and female. The evidence suggests that a 5–10 million processed total motile count (PTMC) should be used for IUI (9Barratt C.L. Clements S. Kessopoulou E. Semen characteristics and fertility tests required for storage of spermatozoa.Humanit Rep. 1998; 13: 1-11Crossref Scopus (18) Google Scholar, 22Van Voorhis B.J. Barnett M. Sparks A.E. Syrop C.H. Rosenthal G. Dawson J. Effect of the total motile sperm count on the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of intrauterine insemination and in vitro fertilization.Fertil Steril. 2001; 75: 661-668Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (182) Google Scholar, 23Khalil M.R. Rasmussen P.E. Erb K. Laursen S.B. Rex S. Westergaard L.G. Homologous intrauterine insemination: an evaluation of prognostic factors based on a review of 2473 cycles.Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001; 80: 74-81Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 24Miller D.C. Hollenbeck B.K. Smith G.D. Randolph J.F. Christman G.M. Smith Y.R. et al.Processed total motile sperm count correlates with pregnancy outcome after intrauterine insemination.Urology. 2002; 60: 497-501Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). In a comparative study of six different PTMC ranges, the lowest pregnancy rates were observed when the PTMC was <2 million compared with the other groups. This was to be expected, but the investigators did not find a statistically significant difference between the other PTMC stratifications, which ranged from a PTMC of 2.1–4 million to >10 million (25Dong F. Sun Y. Su Y. Guo Y. Hu L. Wang F. Relationship between processed total motile sperm count of husband or donor semen and pregnancy outcome following intrauterine insemination.Syst Biol Reprod Med. 2011; 57: 251-255Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar). That study was not performed specifically in cancer patients. Byrd et al. (26Byrd W. Bradshaw K. Carr B. Edman C. Odom J. Ackerman G. A prospective randomized study of pregnancy rates following intrauterine and intracervical insemination using frozen donor sperm.Fertil Steril. 1990; 53: 521-527Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) in 1990 showed optimal pregnancy rates achieved by IUI occurred if the number of motile sperm inseminated was between 6 and 15 million/mL. They also showed if the postthaw motility was <30% of the prethaw motility, the pregnancy rate was only 5.5% compared with 15.4% and 27.2% if the post-thaw motility was 30% to 50% and >50%, respectively. As a rule of thumb, with a 50% sperm survival rate quoted from conventional cryopreservation, many laboratories would consider a prefreeze PTMC of 10 million sperm necessary to result in approximately 5 million sperm after thawing and to obtain adequate IUI (22Van Voorhis B.J. Barnett M. Sparks A.E. Syrop C.H. Rosenthal G. Dawson J. Effect of the total motile sperm count on the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of intrauterine insemination and in vitro fertilization.Fertil Steril. 2001; 75: 661-668Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (182) Google Scholar, 23Khalil M.R. Rasmussen P.E. Erb K. Laursen S.B. Rex S. Westergaard L.G. Homologous intrauterine insemination: an evaluation of prognostic factors based on a review of 2473 cycles.Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001; 80: 74-81Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 24Miller D.C. Hollenbeck B.K. Smith G.D. Randolph J.F. Christman G.M. Smith Y.R. et al.Processed total motile sperm count correlates with pregnancy outcome after intrauterine insemination.Urology. 2002; 60: 497-501Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). This number would ideally be frozen per vial so each vial could be used with each subsequent IUI. As indicated earlier, some cancers may have a worse than 50% survival rate, which needs to be taken into consideration for the postthaw TMC for IUI (11Hotaling J.M. Lopushnyan N.A. Davenport M. Christensen H. Pagel E.R. Muller C.H. et al.Raw and test-thaw semen parameters after cryopreservation among men with newly diagnosed cancer.Fertil Steril. 2013; 99: 464-469Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar). A number similar to IUI is needed to freeze for conventional IVF. If the sperm count or other parameters are lower than this, the samples should be divided into numerous aliquots for ICSI. Some clinics will use frozen sperm as a criterion for ICSI when performing IVF. This is not necessarily the standard of care, but it is a common practice. Another consideration for IUI is the number of IUI attempts required to achieve a pregnancy as well as the number of pregnancies desired. This is certainly not a discrete number; the number of IUI attempts to obtain a successful pregnancy depends on multiple factors, including the female partner's age and fertility testing results. In a younger population, IUI success rates can range from 8% to 15% (27Demir B. Dilbaz B. Cinar O. Karadag B. Tasci Y. Kocak M. et al.Factors affecting pregnancy outcome of intrauterine insemination cycles in couples with favourable female characteristics.J Obstet Gynaecol. 2011; 31: 420-423Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar). One consideration is most IUI data are based on a male and/or female infertile population, and thus, often are not applicable to cancer survivors whose female partner may otherwise be fertile. However, given these data, it is reasonable to expect that as many as six IUI attempts may be needed to achieve a pregnancy. Thus, the number of vials available to accommodate a suitable number of IUI cycles vs. saving a vial or two for IVF-ICSI should be considered very carefully, especially when a man is azoospermic after cancer treatment. Anticipating future plans in such situations is important because of the limited amount of cryopreserved sperm and the need to avoid wasting samples. In addition, the cost of numerous ART cycles can be prohibitive for couples, even more so when no biologic sperm specimens remain and they must consider microdissection of the testicles (microTESE), or needle testicular sperm extraction for sperm retrieval before ICSI. In a randomized trial, Reindollar et al. (28Reindollar R.H. Regan M.M. Neumann P.J. Levine B.S. Thornton K.L. Alper M.M. et al.A randomized clinical trial to evaluate optimal treatment for unexplained infertility: the fast track and standard treatment (FASTT) trial.Fertil Steril. 2010; 94: 888-899Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar) showed that an accelerated protocol proceeding to IVF after fewer IUI cycles (bypassing the gonadotropin IUI cycles) was more cost effective and successful in achieving live births. This study focused on idiopathic infertility, with men having >15 million TMC or >5 million postwash TMC. Although the study did not specifically pertain to cancer patients who might have potentially decreased sperm parameters and did not examine the use of cryopreserved sperm, the results could be extrapolated, reiterating that it may be more efficacious to proceed to IVF sooner. Some would advocate ICSI in borderline IUI or conventional IVF cases when there are few vials with good sperm. Note that refreezing thawed sperm when not used and/or when the stock of biologic sperm is low/depleting has been performed but remains controversial (29Verza S. Esteves S.C. Feasibility of refreezing human spermatozoa through the technique of liquid nitrogen vapor.Int Braz J Urol. 2004; 30: 487-493PubMed Google Scholar). It is interesting that specimens from cancer patients appear to resist cryoinjury from a refreeze similar to those of noncancer controls (29Verza S. Esteves S.C. Feasibility of refreezing human spermatozoa through the technique of liquid nitrogen vapor.Int Braz J Urol. 2004; 30: 487-493PubMed Google Scholar, 30Verza Jr., S. Feijo C.M. Esteves S.C. Resistance of human spermatozoa to cryoinjury in repeated cycles of thaw-refreezing.Int Braz J Urol. 2009; 35 (discussion 91): 581-590Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar). It is also important for providers to understand and devise guidance on methods of sperm retrieval for men with cancer, especially those who have physiologic, anatomic, or constitutional limitations. Obtaining samples by ejaculation is the conventional, simplest, and most noninvasive method. However, ejaculation may be a challenge for a man who is weak from his cancer, has significant constitutional symptoms, or has limited movement due to conditions such as recent lymph node biopsies/cancer surgery, or port placements or lines. The age of the patient and pubertal status are also potential dilemmas. Very young males may never have masturbated, and discussion of this issue needs to be in consultation, with the parents aware and informed. Management of prepubertal males is beyond the scope of this review, but in brief may involve testicular biopsy or even orchiectomy for spermatogonia (stem cell) recovery and cryopreservation and later transplantation/stimulation (31Goossens E. Van Saen D. Tournaye H. Spermatogonial stem cell preservation and transplantation: from research to clinic.Hum Reprod. 2013; 28: 897-907Crossref PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar, 32Wyns C. Curaba M. Vanabelle B. Van Langendonckt A. Donnez J. Options for fertility preservation in prepubertal boys.Hum Reprod Update. 2010; 16: 312-328Crossref PubMed Scopus (204) Google Scholar). This is still experimental (33Jahnukainen K. Ehmcke J. Hou M. Schlatt S. Testicular function and fertility preservation in male cancer patients.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 25: 287-302Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar, 34Keros V. Hultenby K. Borgström B. Fridström M. Jahnukainen K. Hovatta O. Methods of cryopreservation of testicular tissue with viable spermatogonia in pre-pubertal boys undergoing gonadotoxic cancer treatment.Hum Reprod. 2007; 22: 1384-1395Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 35Avarbock M.R. Brinster C.J. Brinster R.L. Reconstitution of spermatogenesis from frozen spermatogonial stem cells.Nat Med. 1996; 2: 693-696Crossref PubMed Scopus (291) Google Scholar). In postpubertal males who potentially are too weak or are otherwise unable to collect samples through masturbation, vibratory stimulation and/or electroejaculation (EEJ) may be an option (36Hovav Y. Dan-Goor M. Yaffe H. Almagor M. Electroejaculation before chemotherapy in adolescents and young men with cancer.Fertil Steril. 2001; 75: 811-813Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar). Electroejaculation for patients with normal sensory status requires them to undergo general anesthesia, so the patient's health will determine whether he is able to undergo the procedure. If the patient is too sick to undergo anesthesia, bedside sperm retrieval with local anesthesia may be considered, involving percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA), needle testicular sperm extraction (TESE), or testicular sperm aspiration (TESA). Whether a patient undergoes general anesthesia, electroejaculation, open testis biopsy, or microscopic epididymal sperm aspiration (MESA) should be considered before any cancer treatments. Sometimes such procedures can be performed at the time of port placement, but this remains at the discretion of the general surgeon and oncologist, who may be concerned about infection of the port with hematologic bacteria from scrotal surgery. Testicular cancer is a unique situation in that sperm can be retrieved from the removed testicle itself via bench dissection of the tissue. After the pathologist has ensured that the tissue is opened in accordance with the requirements for pathologic diagnosis and margin evaluation, often sperm can be retrieved from the testicular tissue surrounding a testis tumor or via epididymal aspiration. This type of testicular sperm extraction is often referred to as onco-TESE. After a radical orchiectomy for testis cancer, approximately 9% of men who have a normal contralateral testis become azoospermic thereafter. This reiterates the importance of obtaining an ejaculated specimen before the orchiectomy or retrieving sperm from the testis at the time of surgery (37Petersen P.M. Skakkebaek N.E. Rørth M. Giwercman A. Semen quality and reproductive hormones before and after orchiectomy in men with testicular cancer.J Urol. 1999; 161: 822-826Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar), as this may be the last opportunity for biologic sperm retrieval in these patients. When th" @default.
• W2040254909 created "2016-06-24" @default.
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• W2040254909 date "2013-11-01" @default.
• W2040254909 modified "2023-10-03" @default.
• W2040254909 title "Clinical guidelines for sperm cryopreservation in cancer patients" @default.
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