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• W2040597757 abstract "Trachoma is still endemic in the very part of the world from which we have our earliest recorded description more than 3500 years ago.1Estes J.W. The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt. Science History Watson Publishing International, Canton, MA1989Google Scholar In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as many as 500 million people are at risk for active trachoma.2Thylefors B. Négrel A.D. Pararajasegaram R. Dadzie K.Y. Global data on blindness.Bull World Health Organ. 1995; 73: 115-121PubMed Google Scholar In absolute numbers this may be as many as ever, as the entire population of the world did not surpass 500 million until the 1500s. Trachoma has disappeared from many areas, but this disappearance probably had little to do with treatment programs.3Taylor H. Towards the global elimination of trachoma.Nat Med. 1999; 5: 492-493Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar Western Europe and the United States have been disease-free in the last century correlating to economic development and in Southeast Asia progress is being made for the same reason. Surveys have documented a decline in active trachoma in the absence of trachoma control programs.4Pokhrel GP, Baral K, Boulter AR, Regmi G. Study of Community Trachoma Control Programs in Banke, Bardia, and Kailali Districts of Western Nepal. XVI Congress of Asia Pacific Academy of Ophthalmology. Asian Pacific Academy of Ophthalmology, 1997;120.Google Scholar, 5Dolin P.J. Faal H. Johnson G.J. et al.Reduction of trachoma in a sub-Saharan village in absence of a disease control programme.Lancet. 1997; 349: 1511-1512Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar, 6Numazaki K. Ikehata M. Chiba S. Aoki K. Reduction of trachoma in absence of a disease-control programme.Lancet. 1997; 350: 447-448Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar Some countries, still officially endemic for trachoma have only traces of disease. Updated surveys in once-endemic parts of the Philippines, Tunisia, Brazil, and China would now probably reveal little active trachoma in children.7Liu H. Ou B. Paxton A. et al.Rapid assessment of trachoma in Hainan.Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2001; (in press)PubMed Google Scholar The WHO, in conjunction with nongovernmental organizations and public health services, has initiated a global program to eliminate blindness from trachoma by 2020.8Report of the First Meeting of the WHO Alliance for the Global Elimination of Trachoma. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997;3.Google Scholar A multipronged attack includes oral antibiotics (single-dose azithromycin) for ocular chlamydial infection and hygienic and environmental improvements. It is hoped this approach will be the final blow to trachoma in hypoendemic areas and will drastically reduce the prevalence in those areas where hyperendemic disease still remains, such as sub-Saharan Africa. However, even if these measures are successful at reducing infection, a large backlog of trichiasis cases will remain (estimated at 10 million), so the program stresses surgical correction for entropion and trichiasis. The basic epidemiology of trachoma in hyperendemic areas has been well known for some time. Children in endemic areas have a follicular conjunctivitis caused by repeated infection with C. trachomatis. By teenage or early adulthood, they are left with conjunctival scars. Adults have cicatricial entropion and trichiasis develop, with high risk for blinding bacterial and fungal corneal ulcers.9Lietman T. Whitcher J. Chlamydial conjunctivitis.Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 1999; 12: 21-32Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar The rate of progression through various stages of trachoma have been estimated from cross-sectional and longitudinal data.10Muñoz B. Bobo L. Mkocha H. et al.Incidence of trichiasis in a cohort of women with and without scarring.Int J Epidemiol. 1999; 28: 1167-1171Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar The epidemiology of trachoma in areas where ocular chlamydial infection is disappearing is not nearly as well understood. This is especially important, because hypoendemic trachoma seems to be by far the most common. No one knows how cicatricial trachoma will progress in the absence of recurrent chlamydial infections. As infection in a community is reduced, progression in the existing pool of scarred conjunctivae to trichiasis and blindness may slow. On the other hand, it is possible for cicatricial conjunctival disease to progress even after the inciting agent has been removed. If persistent and repeated episodes of infection are eliminated, does scarring still progress at the same rate? Will trichiasis still recur frequently after surgery? Fortunately, some investigators are starting to address them. Bowman et al,11Bowman R.J. Jatta B. Charn B. et al.Natural history of trachomatous scarring in The Gambia results of a 12-year longitudinal follow up.Ophthalmology. 2001; 108: 2219-2224Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar in their article entitled “Natural history of trachomatous scarring in The Gambia,” report a longitudinal study of trachoma, 12 years after a previous examination, had been undertaken after the current WHO grading system was introduced.12Thylefors B. Dawson C.R. Jones B.R. et al.A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications.Bull World Health Organ. 1987; 65: 477-483PubMed Google Scholar Tracking down the original study’s participants must have been challenging, given the migration patterns in The Gambia.13Schachter J. West S.K. Mabey D. et al.Azithromycin in control of trachoma.Lancet. 1999; 354: 630-635Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (248) Google Scholar This longitudinal follow-up was worth the effort. In Bowman’s study, trichiasis carries an eightfold risk for corneal opacity. This relationship may seem intuitive and hardly necessary to prove. However, there are many reasons why trachoma makes corneas susceptible to ulcers other than just trichiasis, including the loss of goblet cells, dry eye, scarred tear ducts, keratinazition of the conjunctiva, and distortion of the lid margins.14Jones B.R. Barras T.C. Hunter P.A. Darougar S. Neglected lid deformities causing progressive corneal disease. Surgical correction of entropion, trichiasis, marginal keratinization, and functional lid shortening.Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK. 1976; 96: 45-51PubMed Google Scholar Because trichiasis is the easiest of these deficiencies to correct, it is comforting to know that it is such an important determinant of corneal ulcer formation. An eightfold risk factor may not seem large, as extended wear of soft contact lenses in the United States carries a similar relative risk, but is not one of the major causes of blindness in the world.15Schein O.D. Buehler P.O. Stamler J.F. et al.The impact of overnight wear on the risk of contact lens-associated ulcerative keratitis.Arch Ophthalmol. 1994; 112: 186-190Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar Surveys in the developing world reveal an incidence of nontrachomatous corneal ulcers 10 or more times that found in the developed world.16Gonzales C.A. Srinivasan M. Whitcher J.P. Smolin G. Incidence of corneal ulceration in Madurai district, South India.Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 1996; 3: 159-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (131) Google Scholar, 17Srinivasan M. Gonzales C.A. George C. et al.Epidemiology and aetiological diagnosis of corneal ulceration in Madurai, south India.Br J Ophthalmol. 1997; 81: 965-971Crossref PubMed Scopus (447) Google Scholar This study also provides estimates of the progression rates from conjunctival scarring to trichiasis and from trichiasis to corneal opacity. These estimates are lower than those derived from data in Tanzania, where the prevalence of active, infectious trachoma is much higher.10Muñoz B. Bobo L. Mkocha H. et al.Incidence of trichiasis in a cohort of women with and without scarring.Int J Epidemiol. 1999; 28: 1167-1171Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 18Munoz B. Aron J. Turner V. West S. Incidence estimates of late stages of trachoma among women in a hyperendemic area of central Tanzania.Trop Med Int Health. 1997; 2: 1030-1038Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar This trend is encouraging. Although cicatricial trachoma is clearly progressing, even at the lower levels of infection found in The Gambia, it may be doing so at a slower rate than in hyperendemic areas of Tanzania. Perhaps decreasing the infectious burden in a community will not only prevent children from ever developing scarring but also slow down the progression of those with existing scarring to trichiasis and blinding ulcers. Trichiasis can recur after surgery. Bilamellar tarsal rotation procedure may be the best of several procedures but still had a failure rate of about 20% over an average of 18 months.19Reacher M.H. Muñoz B. Alghassany A. et al.A controlled trial of surgery for trachomatous trichiasis of the upper lid.Arch Ophthalmol. 1992; 110: 667-674Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar Bowman et al11Bowman R.J. Jatta B. Charn B. et al.Natural history of trachomatous scarring in The Gambia results of a 12-year longitudinal follow up.Ophthalmology. 2001; 108: 2219-2224Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar document 30% failure from surgeries performed at various times between 1986 and 1999. Their 12-year follow-up survey revealed trichiasis cases that went untreated, surgical cases in which trichiasis recurred, and surgical cases that successfully prevented trichiasis but not corneal opacities. A history of trichiasis surgery was actually associated with corneal opacity, perhaps because surgery was too late, after opacities were already present. Better estimates of access to surgery, barriers to surgery, and long-term surgical failure rates will be very important for designing optimal surgical strategies.20Courtright P. Acceptance of surgery for trichiasis among rural Malawian women.East Afr Med J. 1994; 71: 803-804PubMed Google Scholar, 21Bowman R.J. Soma O.S. Alexander N. et al.Should trichiasis surgery be offered in the village? A community randomised trial of village vs. health centre-based surgery.Trop Med Int Health. 2000; 5: 528-533Crossref PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar Even in trachoma-endemic The Gambia, Bowman et al11Bowman R.J. Jatta B. Charn B. et al.Natural history of trachomatous scarring in The Gambia results of a 12-year longitudinal follow up.Ophthalmology. 2001; 108: 2219-2224Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar find that cataracts are the leading cause of blindness. However, this does not necessarily imply that all ophthalmic public health dollars should be spent on cataract control. As opposed to cataract, visual loss from trachoma may be permanent. Even if corneal transplantation were readily available in trachoma-endemic areas, most of those blind from trachoma would be poor candidates, with entropion, keratinization, and poor mucin and tear production. Our only hope is to prevent the blinding corneal ulcers from occurring in the first place. Also, as opposed to cataracts, trachoma is transmissible, so the effect of control may be amplified. A successful program now may have a unique opportunity to prevent many generations of people from ever having blindness from trachoma. Many western ophthalmologists believe the trachoma problem has been solved—that it is just a matter of implementing the existing treatment programs, but there are major hurdles to overcome. In hyperendemic areas, we have to prove that chlamydia can be eradicated locally from a community with repeat mass azithromycin treatment, or that we can at least keep infection from returning to its previous levels with other measures such as hygiene and environmental programs.22Lietman T. Porco T. Dawson C. Blower S. Global elimination of trachoma how frequently should we administer mass chemotherapy?.Nat Med. 1999; 5: 572-576Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar Even if trachoma programs are successful against infection, we will be left with a large pool of cicatricial trachoma in teenagers and adults at risk for trichiasis and blindness. It is comforting that in once hyperendemic areas such as The Gambia, it may soon be easier to prevent future chlamydial infections than it is to control trichiasis from existing cicatricial trachoma. We may be near the end of our program to control active trachoma but just beginning the research necessary to control cicatricial trachoma. If we can control infection in hyperendemic areas and then control trichiasis, by the year 2020 trachoma may indeed be only a part of ophthalmologic history." @default.
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• W2040597757 title "Trachoma control the end of the beginning?" @default.
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