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• W2040857034 abstract "Women γν Western Europe.· Socioeconomic Restructuring and Crisis in Gender Contracts Liisa Rantalaiho and Raija Julkunen Western Europe in the Eighties: Restructuring and Long Term Change The 1980s in Western Europe were a period of restructuring with the aim of economic and social modernization. Restructuring attempted to cope with three major challenges: deepening globalization of economic relations and increasing international competition; the impact of new information technologies in all areas of economic life; and the political attacks on and fiscal problems of the welfare state. This transformation, however, took place in a social landscape which has also been changing in a slow but radical way; the social relationship between women and men is being restructured in people's daily lives. As a result of these social changes, populations are aging, the institution of the family is eroding and transforming, individualization is increasing, and women are entering the labor market on a massive scale. Restructuring or structural change has sometimes seemed like an economic force of nature—disseminating new technologies, creating new products and markets, deindustrializing, wreaking large-scale unemployment . But it has also been the major focus of political and economic measures for individual governments, labor market parties, and international organizations. The most prominent program for increasing European competitiveness is the Single-Market program of the European Community (EC), which dominated political discussions in the late 1980s. Our interest here is on the position of women. Western Europe is not one and the same; there are great differences in the economic, social, and cultural conditions of the various countries and these differences will not be eliminated by ongoing integration. The common factor among them is women's secondary position in society. Women's position, however, is part of certain national socioeconomic and cultural models or patterns, which cluster together in more general types. Even if long-term changes have been surprisingly similar across the countries, they may still result in different consequences in different contexts. Gender Contracts Societies have to guarantee their continuity. People produce goods and services for their daily bread and children who will replace their © 1994 Journal of Women-s History, Vol. 5 No. 3 (Winter) 12 Journal of Women's History Winter parents in time. Women and men together have the task of keeping life and society going; they reproduce not only human life, but also social and cultural structures, including the societal structure of gender. There has to be some kind of implicit gender contract or gender order that is organized and operates on several levels simultaneously: how institutions are organized, how people interact with each other, how symbols and cultural meanings are used, and how individual identities are formed. The concept of gender in this understanding is not something natural or given, but a process of producing and reproducing institutions , meanings, and identities. It is on the move, historical and changeable, but it has a systemic character with a certain basic logic. The Swedish historian Yvonne Hirdman writes that the gender system has two principles ^—hierarchy and difference. Difference means that woman, female, or feminine should be clearly discernible in ideas and practices from man, male, or masculine. The hierarchic principle rules that in every instance man, male, or masculine should take precedence and be the primary norm.1 In Western industrial societies the gender order revolves around labor market structures. Afamiliar solution historically established was to divide the responsibilities in separate spheres for men and women, men in production and women in reproduction of human life. That was often more an ideology than reality and constructed with clearly class-specific solutions . Other types of gender contracts have functioned for some time already. The prevailing gender order in the Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden—entails the individual right of women to paid work and a certain amount of personal economic and social independence in exchange for women's continuing responsibility for human care, both within public services and in the family, and women's acceptance of a subordinate position within the processes of power.2 The social contradiction remains where both production and reproduction are institutionally separated, although they must be combined in individuáis' lives. But there are strong and basic gender..." @default.
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• W2040857034 title "Women in Western Europe: Socioeconomic Restructuring and Crisis in Gender Contracts" @default.
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• W2040857034 doi "https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2010.0166" @default.
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