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• W2045533825 abstract "LettersandPoliticalJudgment: JohnAdamsandCicero'sStyle JAMESM.FARRELL Anumberofeighteenth-centuryrhetoriciansofferedprescriptionsonletterwritingaspartoftheirtreatmentofrhetoricalstyle .Asithadbeenin previousages,letterwritingremainedintheeighteenthcenturyamongthe genresofcompositioncommonlytaughtbyrhetoricians.Moreover,ashad earlierrhetoricians,thewritersofthebelleslettresmovementturnedto Cicero'sepistlesastheprincipalmodelforletterwritingstyle.Charles Rollin,forexample,foundinCicero'slettersthepropercharacterofthe epistolarystyle,whileHughBlaircalledthemthemostvaluable collectionofletters,extant,inanylanguage.1TheseprofessionalassessmentsofCicero 'sletters,however,donotrevealmuchaboutthe influenceoftheRoman'sepistolarystyleonthepracticeofletterwritingin theeighteenthcentury.Nordotheserecommendations,concerned exclusivelyandnarrowlywithstyle,suggestthepoliticaladvantagessucha stylemightaffordaletterwriterinvolved,asCicerowas,inthedaytoday businessofstatecraft.Inatleastonecase,however,Cicero'sepistolary stylewasconsciouslyadoptedandimitated.Asthisstudyofcertain politicallettersofJohnAdamswillshow,heturnedtoCiceroasthe paradigmforhisepistolarydiscourse. CiceronianStyleandPoliticalJudgment Therewaswideagreementamongeighteenth-centuryscholarsaboutthose attributesofCicero'sstylewhichmadehislettersworthyofimitation. WilliamGuthrie,whosetranslationsofCicero'sletterswasamongthemost popularintheeighteenthcentury,wroteaboutCicero'sextremelyfree styleandhisepistolaryfamiliarity.BlairbelievedCicero'sletterswere 137 138/FARRELL composedwithpurityandelegance,butwithouttheleastaffectation,a pointagreedtobyConyersMiddletonwhothoughttheRoman'sepistles revealedthegenuineman,withoutdisguiseoraffectation.Suchrevelation waspossible,Middletonsaid,becausetheletterswerewritteninthe languageofconversation.Rollinnotedtheeasy,simple,andnaturalturn intheselettersofTully,andobservedfurthertheirbeautyanddelicacyof expression.JohnWardalsopraisedthestileofCicero'sepistles,inwhich theplainnessandsimplicityofhisdiction,isaccompaniedwithsomething sopleasantandingaging[sic],thathekeepsuptheattentionofhisreader withoutsufferinghimtotire.2 ThecriticallanguageusedtodescribeCicero'sepistolarystylesuggests thattheletterswerewidelyadmiredbecausetheyansweredtheimpulse towardanaturallanguageineighteenth-centurytheoriesofexpression.As JayFliegelmanhasrecentlyargued,communicationcultureintheeigh- teenthcenturyrecommendedcultivationofalivingvoiceandconversa- tionalfreedominbothpublicandprivatediscourse.Theconversational ideal,hewrites,wouldquicklybeimpressedintotheserviceofthe revolutionaryprojectofdefiningthedistinctivenessofAmericanletters. Fliegelman'sessaybeginstoshowhowtheconditionsofspeakingand writingoperativein1776:whatwasassumed,butnotspoken,inthedo- mainofactionandspeech,hadafundamentalinfluenceonhowpolitics wasperceivedandpracticed.3InthespecificcaseofJohnAdams'letters fromtheContinentalCongress,weseehowadoptionoftheCiceronian styleofwritingfacilitatedhispracticeofpolitics.ImitatingCicero'sconversationalstyleallowedAdamstousehisownlettersasavitalmediumof politicaljudgment. InhisstudyofJohnDickinson'sFarmer'sLetter,StephenBrowne showshowDickinson'srelianceonpastoralconfigurationscreatesamodel ofrhetoricaljudgement.Thepastoralsensibilitiesheightenedby Dickinson'sethosandstyle,Browneexplains,allowtheauthortoaddress currentissuesbyredefiningthetermsofpublicactionandrhetorical judgment.Themodelofjudgmentimplicitinpastoral,resultingfroma fusionofstyleandsubstance,createsaperspectivewhichrequires distancebutmandatesaction.Thepastoralcanbeheardonlyatadistance andemergesfromthequiethauntsofthestudy,village,andfarm. Dickinson'sappropriationofthepastoralforrhetoricalendscomposesan essentiallycontemplativevoiceforhisLetter,apersonawhichembodies calm,wisejudgment,rootedinthevirtuesofdistance,reflection,and disinterest.4 Browne'sstudyofDickinsondiscoversthemodelofpoliticaljudgment implicitintheconventionsofaparticularliterarygenre.Thepastoral invitesajudgmentofpoliticaleventsconsistentwiththevantageofthe farmerwhohasfreelychosenthevitacontemplativa,aworldand perspectiveremovedfromthehectic,distortedscenesofcitylife.Although Dickinson'sFarmerwasafiction,wecaneasilyrecognizethepossibility AdamsandCicero/139 ofinvokingtheclusterofvalues,mostprominentlytheagrarianvirtuesof steadyperspectiveandprudenceassociatedwiththepastoralstyleforother rhetoricalpurposes.Yetitisalsoclearthat,bydefinition,thepastoralis reservedforthosewhoareremoved,actuallyorartistically,fromthe volatiledemandsofimmediateaction.Itcannotanswertherhetorical needsofthoseimmersedinthebusyscenesofcitypolitics.Anotherstyle andmodeofrhetoricaljudgmentmustservethosewhopursuethevita activa.5 Perhapsmorethananyotherhistoricalcharacterknowntothemenofthe eighteenthcentury,Ciceroembodiedthevitaactiva.Cicero'scomplete immersioninthestormypoliticallifeofthelateRomanrepublicis immediatelyevidentfromhisletters.InhisstudyofCicero'slettersto Atticus,RobertHarimanidentifiestheepistlesaspartoftheliteratureof politicalthought.Cicero'sletters,heexplains,articulatetherepublican style,whichisthestyledesignedtomaximizethepoliticalopportunities inherenttorepublicangovernment.Asmanifestationsoftherepublican style,thelettersbecomeahermeneuticalspace,amediumof understanding,bywhichCicerodiscernsthepreferablefromothercourses ofaction.HarimanconcludesthatCicero'slettersarethechiefmeansby whichtheRomancomposeshispubliccharacter.Ciceromustconstantly answerthequestionhowishetocomporthimself—inallofhisdecisions, fromselectinghisplaceofresidencetochoosinghisalliestoconcludinghis nextspeech—inordertobethepublicfigurehewishestobecome?6 Cicero'srepublicanstyle,therefore,offersacounterweighttothepastoral configurationsofJohnDickinson.TheCiceronianvoicespeakstothevita activa,itrevealsacharacterseekingamediumforpoliticaljudgmentamidst thebusyscenesofRomanpolitics. JohnAdamsreveledinthevitaactiva.IswearIwillrenouncethe Contemplative,andbetakemyselftoanactiverovingLife,heremarkedin anearlydiaryentry.IwillpushmyselfintoBusiness.Iwillwatchmy Opportunity,tospeakinCourt,andwillstrikewithsurprize—surprize Bench,Bar,Jury,Auditorsandall.Activity,Boldness,Forwardness,will drawattention.HenotleanwithmyElbowsontheTable,foreverlike Read,Swift,Fitch,SkinnerStory,&c.Laterheconfessedhisdesireto moveandstirfromonesceneofActionandDebateandBusiness,and Pleasure,andConversation,toanotherandgrowwearyofallbeforeIshall feelthestrongDesireofretiringtocontemplation.7 YetwhenAdamslearnedhewouldrepresentMassachusettsinthe ContinentalCongress,hewasoverwhelmedbythepoliticalburdenhefaced. Atfirst,hedidnotevenknowwhattothinkoftheforthcomingassembly. DiditcomparetotheCourtofAriopagus,theCouncilofthe Amphyctions,orwasitaConclave,aSanhédrin,ADivan?Itistobea SchoolofPoliticalProphetsISuppose,heconcluded.ANurseryof AmericanStatesmen.8Themanydoubtsheexpressedabouthisinability tosucceedinCongressweremuchmorethanconventionaloffice-taking 140/FARRELL fare.Iwanderalone,andponder,hewroteinhisdiary.Imuse,Imope, Iruminate.—IamoftenInReveriesandBrownStudies.Adamsthought thetaskofCongresswasToogrand,andmultifariousforhis comprehension,andheregrettedthelackoftrainedpoliticiansinAmerica. WehavenotMen,fitfortheTimes,hecomplained.Wearedeficientin Genius,inEducation,inTravel,inFortune—ineveryThing.Ifeel unutterableAnxiety.9 JohnAdamsandCicero'sLetters Believingheandhiscolleagueslackedthecapacityforcompetentpolitical judgment,AdamsgainedsomeconfidencebyemulatingCicero,theRoman patriotwhohadexcelledinoratoryandstatesmanshipduringtheperiodof ancienthistorythatwasmostfamiliartoAdamsandhiscontemporaries. IncreasinglyastheeventsoftheRevolutiondevelopedandengulfedhim, AdamswasinclinedtoviewAnglo-AmericanpoliticsinRomanterms.Not onlydidheseebroadhistoricalparallelsbetweenthedeclineofRomeand thecorruptioninGreatBritain,butheenvisionedaspecificroleforhimself intherepeatingdrama.JustbeforeleavingBraintreetoattendtheFirst ContinentalCongress,forexample,AdamsrecalledCicero'sfirstpolitical missionawayfromRome.HewrotetoWilliamTudoraboutthevirtueofthisgreatandexcellentorator,andStatesman,tellinghimthatCicerodidnotreceivethisoffice,asPersonsdonowadays,asaGift,butratherasa publicTrust.CiceroconsideredhisofficetobeaTheatre,inwhichthe EyesoftheWorld,wereuponhim,saidAdams,andhedeterminedto devotehimselftoit,anddenyhimselfeveryPleasure,whichcouldinterfere withalaudableDischargeofit.10Chosentoattendthemostimportant politicalmeetingincolonialhistory,Adamsmusthavequestionedwhether hisowncharacterandservicewouldsatisfyorevensurpasstheCiceronian standard.DuringhisserviceinCongressAdamsthoughtofhimselfasan AmericanSenator(atermnotyetappliedtoAmericanlegislatorsbutquite familiartostudentsofancientRome),andwonderedinalettertoJames WarrenwhatPlanswouldbeadoptedattheCongressif...aDemosthenes oraCicerowerethere.11 ButAdamsdidmorethanadmireCicero.Thereisampleevidenceto showthatthisAmericanpatriotconsciouslyimitatedhisRomanhero's letterwritingstyle.AdamsprobablyfirstencounteredCicero'slettersasa youngscholarpreparingtoenterHarvard,sincetheepistleswerecommonly assignedbyLatintutorstopreparestudentsforcollegeentrance examinations.LaterAdamsreadthelettersinLatininthethirdvolumeof Cicero'sOperaOmnia.12In1758,ashepreparedtotaketheattorney'soath inBoston,hetoldJeremiahGridleyhehadrecentlyreadCicero'sOrations andEpistles.13AdamsalsoreadmanyofCicero'slettersinEnglishin ConyersMiddleton'sLifeofM.TulliusCicero.14Inthecourseofhis biography,Middletontranslatedandreprinted,inwholeorinpart,morethan AdamsandCicero/141 130ofCicero'sletters.Healsoincludedhundredsofadditionalepistolary excerptsinLatininthefootnotesofhiswork.Adamsmayalsohaveread oneormoreoftheEnglishtranslationsofCicero'slettersavailablein eighteenth-centuryAmerica,themostpopularofwhichwereWilliam Guthrie's1752editionofCicero'sletterstoAtticus,andWilliam Melmoth's1755collectionofCicero'sepistlestohisfriends.15Giventhe importanceofCicero'slettersinrhetoricaltradition,theirpopularityinthe eighteenthcentury,andAdams'easyaccesstotheminbothLatinand English,itisnotsurprisingtofindAdamsselectingCiceroashisepistolary paradigm. Adams,likeotherletterwritersofhistime,hadmanyexamplesto emulate,andalthoughheconsideredseveralmodelstobeworthwhile,heleft nodoubtaboutthatwhichguidedhisowncorrespondence.Amongthe ancients,hetoldhiswife,therearetwoillustriousExamplesofthe Epistolarystyle,CiceroandPliny.ThelettersofthesetwoRomans, Adamsthought,presentyouwithModellsoffineWriting,whichhas bornetheCriticismofalmosttwothousandYears.Thoseancientwriters, hesaid,conveyedtheSublime,thebeautifull,theNovell,andthe Pathetick,anddidsowithasmuchSimplicity,Ease,Freedom,andfamil- iarity,asLanguageiscapableof.16Later,however,Adamsrevisedhis opinionofPliny'sproductionsandparedhislistofgreatepistolarymodels toone.Pliny'sletters,hefinallydecided,aretoostudiedandtooelegant. Cicero'saretheonlyonesofperfectsimplicity,confidence,andfamiliar- ity.17ThisviewofCicero'slettersechoesAdams'ownphilosophyofthe epistolaryart.Letterwriting,hewrote,hadalltheadvantagesofConver- sationandwasessentiallydifferentfromtheoratorical,andtheHistorical style.Letters,hethought,likeconversations,shouldbefree,easyand familiar.18 AdamsandtheCiceronianStyle LikeCicero,Adamswroteletterswhichcomfortablyblendedprivate communicationwithpublicbusiness.Hisepistolarystyle,likethatof Cicero,wascolloquial,exclamatory,metaphorical,interrogatory,andoften elliptical.Hislettersechoedthepassionate,oftenhurried,sometimesin- completestyleofconversationaldiscourseand,likethoseofCicero,often containedanelementofdrama. ThedramaticcharacterofAdams'epistolarystyleisespeciallyevidentin thoselettersinwhichhereconstructsadialogue,suchasthathecomposed toAbigailonJune29,1774.WehadacuriousDialogueYesterday,at Dinner,betweenourJusticesTrowbridgeandHutchinson,Adamswrote. T.saidhehadseenaLetter,fromEngland,inwhichitwassaidthatthe ConductoftheChiefJusticewashighlyapproved,andthatoftheother Judgeshighlydisapproved,attheCourtEndoftheTown.—T.added,I dontknowwhethertheyimputeitalltomeornot.—AyesaysH.butit 142/FARRELL wasallowingtoyou.YoulaidBrotherRopes,Cushingandme,under theNecessityofrefusingtheRoyalGrant,andacceptingtheProvince Salary.19 Thedialoguecontinuesinthisfashionforseveralmoreparagraphswith Adamsbothwritingthelinesandprovidingeditorialcomment. Adams,ofcourse,mayhavenaturallyresortedtodialoguetoheightenthe dramaticeffectofhiscomposition.ButwemustnotethatCicero,too, oftenreportedRomaneventsindialogueform.InalettertoAtticus,for example,CicerorelatesanexchangebetweenhimandClodiuswhich occurredintheRomanSenate: OurlittleBeautygetsonhisfeetandaccusesmeofhavingbeenat Baiae—nottrue,butanyhow,Well,Ireply,isthatlikesayingI intrudedontheMysteries?WhatbusinesshasanArpinummanwith thewaters?Tellthattoyourcounsel,Iretorted;Hewaskeen enoughtogetcertainofthemthatbelongedtoanArpinumman(you knowMarius'placeofcourse).Howlong,criedhe,arewegoingto putupwiththeking?Youtalkaboutkings,Ianswered,whenRex didn'thaveawordtosayaboutyou?(hehadhopedtohavethe squanderingofRex'smoney).Soyou'veboughtahouse,saidhe.I rejoined,onemightthinkhewassayingthatIhadboughtajury. Theydidn'tcredityouonoath.Onthecontrary25jurymengaveme creditand31gaveyounone—theygottheirmoneyinadvance!The roarsofapplauseweretoomuchforhimandhecollapsedinto silence.20 Despitethegapinthecenturiesandthedifferencesincontent,thereislittle stylisticallytoseparateAdams'letterfromthatofCicero. Attimesoflessleisure,Adamscommunicatedthepoliticalatmospherein shortbursts.OnSeptember14,1774,hewrotetoAbigailfrom Philadelphia:MytimeistotallyfilledfromtheMomentIgetoutofBed, untiliIreturntoit.Visits,Ceremonies,Company,Business,NewsPapers, Pamphlets&c.&c.&c.HealsoassuredherthatAToryhereisthemost despicableAnimalintheCreation.Spiders,Toads,Snakes,aretheironly properEmblems.21Adams'hurriedpaceisevidentintheseexcerpts.The style,asmuchasthecontent,conveysthemessageclearly.Yettheletteris writtenwithoutapparentartorformalconstruction.Conjunctionsare missingandsentencesrushtotheircompletion.Thethoughtandpassion aremoreimportantthantheformalitiesofcomposition..." @default.
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• W2045533825 date "1995-01-01" @default.
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• W2045533825 title "Letters and Political Judgment: John Adams and Cicero's Style" @default.
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