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• W2051736703 abstract "Archerfish are renowned for their unique hunting technique: with a simple blow tube (Figure 1A) they fire precisely aimed jets of water at distant aerial prey to catch their dislodged victims on the water surface [1Smith H.M. The archer fish.Natur. Hist. 1936; 38: 2-11Google Scholar, 2Schuster S. Rossel S. Schmidtmann A. Jäger A. Poralla J. Archer fish learn to compensate for complex optical distortions to determine the absolute size of their aerial prey.Curr. Biol. 2004; 14: 1565-1568Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 3Schuster S. Wöhl S. Griebsch M. Klostermeier I. Animal cognition: How archer fish learn to down rapidly moving targets.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: 378-383Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar]. The tube is thought capable only of delivering an all-or-none shot of fixed force [4Elshoud G.C.A. Koomen P. A biomechanical analysis of spitting in archer fishes (Pisces, Perciformes, Toxidae).Zoomorphology. 1985; 105: 240-252Crossref Scopus (28) Google Scholar]. But archerfish shoot down an impressive range of different organisms from flies to small lizards [1Smith H.M. The archer fish.Natur. Hist. 1936; 38: 2-11Google Scholar], can estimate their absolute size [2Schuster S. Rossel S. Schmidtmann A. Jäger A. Poralla J. Archer fish learn to compensate for complex optical distortions to determine the absolute size of their aerial prey.Curr. Biol. 2004; 14: 1565-1568Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar], and would save energy by tuning their shots accordingly. Studying for the first time the forces transferred to prey, we discovered that archerfish do not fire all-or-none shots but fine-tune their surprisingly costly shots to prey size. This tuning is strikingly lacking of plasticity and innately matched to a constant key property of archerfish feeding ecology: the universal scaling [5Arzt E. Gorb S. Spolenak R. From micro to nano contacts in biological attachment devices.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 10603-10606Crossref PubMed Scopus (805) Google Scholar] of adhesive forces of their various prey organisms. By imaging the impact of archerfish shots at frame rates of 5000 s−1 (see Supplemental experimental procedures in the Supplemental data available on-line with this issue) we were able to derive for the first time the forces acting on prey and discovered that archerfish transfer systematically larger maximum forces to larger targets (Figure 1B). Strikingly, forces were strictly tuned to target-size even in fish that had grown up in an artificial situation in which we removed all advantages of adjusting force. Under these conditions firing a weak, size-independent shot sufficed to receive a reward of constant nutritional value, regardless which target the fish were firing at. Because of their impressive cognitive performance in other tasks [2Schuster S. Rossel S. Schmidtmann A. Jäger A. Poralla J. Archer fish learn to compensate for complex optical distortions to determine the absolute size of their aerial prey.Curr. Biol. 2004; 14: 1565-1568Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 3Schuster S. Wöhl S. Griebsch M. Klostermeier I. Animal cognition: How archer fish learn to down rapidly moving targets.Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: 378-383Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar] we expected the fish to readily adjust to such conditions and to not tune their force-transfer. Nevertheless, even after two years in this setting, all fish continued to increase their maximum instantaneous forces (Figure 1C, r2 = 0.88, P < 0.001) and the total momenta transferred (r2 = 0.97, P < 0.001, data not shown) in strict proportion to target size. This puzzling lack of plasticity could be understood as an evolutionary match to a stable key factor in archerfish hunting: The maximum adhesive forces in animals as diverse as flies and lizards have recently been shown to follow a universal scaling rule [5Arzt E. Gorb S. Spolenak R. From micro to nano contacts in biological attachment devices.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 10603-10606Crossref PubMed Scopus (805) Google Scholar]. As a consequence of the self-similar structure of their attachment pads, terminal elements occur in a density Np that universally increases with the animal's mass m2/3, and the total adhesive forces increase proportional to Np1/2. Hence, the maximum adhesive forces an archerfish's shot must overcome in order to actually dislodge prey increase linearly with prey's size (i.e. with its linear dimensions or m1/3). Archerfish force-scaling closely matches this prediction, ensuring a reasonable safety margin: for any given size of prey, the fish apply about ten times the forces the adhesive organs of prey of that size could maximally sustain (Figure 1C). Our findings do not support the views that archerfish shooting has been significantly shaped either by components of prey adhesion that are not mediated by specialized organs, or by an attempt of the fish to achieve a mass-independent speed level of its dislodged prey — these would predict force to increase with, respectively, the square or the third power of the prey's size. Moreover, because the first shot hits prey unprepared in an average posture, the fish needed not to adjust to the probably much larger forces some prey might exert by clawing to the substrate. The evolutionary pressures for adjusting the shots at all, instead of firing an all-or-none shot of sufficient maximum force, became evident when we analyzed the mass, speed and kinetic energy of the shots. For this we absorbed and weighed the ejected water and monitored its release speed (see Supplemental data). A hunting bout performed at the peak shooting rate and with shots of maximal force consumes at least 16 mW (if shooting had 100% efficiency), which compares to a basal metabolic rate of about 12 mW. Fitting with the costs of shooting, archerfish use the most economic way of tuning their shots. To transfer more force, they fire shots with larger mass (P < 0.05; 198 shots, 3 fish) but do not increase release pressure and initial speed of the shot (P > 0.3; 112 shots, 3 fish). As the kinetic energy of their shot varies with the square of speed but only linearly with mass, this simple trick enables archerfish to scale their forces in the least costly way and to double force transfer at doubled instead of quadrupled energetic costs. The editors of Current Biology welcome correspondence on any article in the journal, but reserve the right to reduce the length of any letter to be published. All Correspondence containing data or scientific argument will be refereed. Queries about articles for consideration in this format should be sent by e-mail to [email protected] Download .pdf (.03 MB) Help with pdf files Document S1. Supplemental Experimental Procedures" @default.
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• W2051736703 title "Archerfish shots are evolutionarily matched to prey adhesion" @default.
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• W2051736703 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.082" @default.
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