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• W2058175038 abstract "Gender issues, such as traditional systems of dominance and hierarchical interaction styles that negatively affect both sexes, may be so invisible and insidious that it is difficult to articulate them or to clarify the profound impact they have on professional roles. Yet these issues do affect the way women feel capable to meet their professional and personal roles (1.Hill L Women's changing work roles: implications for the progress of the dietetic profession.J Am Diet Assoc. 1991; 91: 25-27Google Scholar, 2.Gordon S Prisoners of Men's Dreams: Striking Out for a New Feminine Future. Little, Brown & Co, Boston, Mass1991Google Scholar). Dominance is a style of interaction based on ranking of one gender, race, or social group over another, and it has been woven into the fabric of our history for aeons (3.Eisler R The Chalice and the Blade. Harper & Row, San Francisco, Calif1987Google Scholar). Is it inevitable that this same paralyzing dance will be continued into the future, or are there alternatives? This article examines the impact on women of our society's orientation toward a dominator model of interaction, explains the history of this model, and explores choices to move toward a more equitable style of interpersonal interaction in the work setting. Napoleon Bonaparte once said, “history is a fable agreed upon” (4.Frost JB Sayings of Napoleon. Romance Publishing Co, Atlanta, Ga1895Google Scholar). Until recently, that fable has been written from one perspective — that of the conquerors or dominators of societies. What this means is that who women are and how women have been described as a part of the species has been chronicled exclusively from a dominator perspective. Archaeologist James Mellaart (5.Mellaart J The Neolithic of the Near East. Scribner, New York, NY1975Google Scholar) documented how new archaeological discoveries and older finds reinterpreted with more scientific methods reveal that for many thousands of years societies were not male dominated, violent, and hierarchical. Riane Eisler's scholarly work (3.Eisler R The Chalice and the Blade. Harper & Row, San Francisco, Calif1987Google Scholar) describes these millennia as a time when men and women lived together in harmony with each other and women were respected and venerated. Eisler emphasized that the societies that honored the female and female deities were not female dominated, but operated in a male-female partnership model. The partnership model is a cultural style in which social relations are primarily based on the principle of linking rather than ranking among people. What eventually occurred was a transformational shift (circa 3500 to 2400 bc) to a hierarchy where destructive powers began to dominate over nurturing powers. This also signaled the beginning of the ranking of males over females, the emergence of dominant male deities, and the purposeful destruction of the life-generating, nurturing, and caregiving-based cultures (3.Eisler R The Chalice and the Blade. Harper & Row, San Francisco, Calif1987Google Scholar). There are significant implications in this alternative depiction of our evolution. First, it pinpoints a glimmer of hope for us as a species. The dominator model, which has become the primary style of interaction between people in most cultures and between males and females, may not be genetically ingrained in our species. If males and females once functioned as partners without gender dominance, perhaps that model can be restored. Second, it points out that the historical depiction of manhood and womanhood had previously been predominantly shaped by male writers, researchers, and scholars whose focus was culturally bound within the dominator model. If history has been written from a strongly subjective view, as Napoleon suggested, it can be rewritten from a view that incorporates a more egalitarian model of human interaction. Until very recently, scholarly research and developmental theories generated within the dominator model sent women the message that they were somehow not equal in any meaningful way to men. Messages women have received about their attributes have traditionally been described in relation to male development, where male behavior was regarded as the “norm” and female behavior was treated as some kind of deviation from that norm (6.Gilligan C In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass1982Google Scholar). In Sigmund Freud's works, for example, women were viewed as lesser than and deviant from men (7.Freud S Some psychical consequences of the anatomical distinction between sexes (1925).in: 2nd ed. The Standard Edition of Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. XIX. Hogarth Press, London, England1961Google Scholar). This also appeared to be true of Erik Erikson's theories. Erikson's studies of normal human development were designed to describe patterns that he believed held true for males (8.Erikson E Identity: Youth and Crisis. W.W. Norton, New York, NY1968Google Scholar). He described a woman's life-cycle development and achievements from a male perspective, describing her primarily in terms of her mate, the status of her mate, and her family. Lawrence Kohlberg (9.Kohlberg L The Philosophy of Moral Development. Harper & Row, San Francisco, Calif1981Google Scholar) developed stages for moral development from a study of 84 males over a period of 20 years; he then judged women's moral reasoning to be inferior in comparison with the moral development stages he devised for men. Carol Gilligan, in her book In a Different Voice(6.Gilligan C In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass1982Google Scholar), provided a clearly different perspective of life-cycle moral development when women were studied. She observed that there were differences between men's and women's style of moral and identity development, but that each path had integrity and validity. The inclusion of women's qualities of affiliation and attachment brought a new perspective and depth to moral development in relationships. The dominator biases that constrict the potential view of women also trap men in a narrow configuration of humanity. Males as well as females have struggled with and against the issues of a dominator society in trying to develop their own sense of partnership and success. Traditional hero roles for men, such as warrior, adventurer, tycoon, and breadwinner, are all intricately laced with the win/lose trappings of the dominator model and avoid or ridicule the potentially tender heart (10.Gerzon M A Choice of Heroes. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Mass1982Google Scholar). As large numbers of women began to enter this work environment of pervasive male dominance, many women felt the need to gear up for a fight to prove somehow not only that women's work was acceptable, but that women were acceptable. Matina Horner (11.Horner M Sex differences in achievement, motivation, and performance in competitive and noncompetitive situations.in: Gilligan C In a Different Voice. 2nd ed. PhD dissertation. University of Michigan. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass1968Google Scholar) studied women's experiences with career confrontations and their anxiety about competitive achievement. She concluded that women fear stressful career situations because for most women, the anticipation of success in a competition against men produces anticipation of certain negative consequences, for example, threat of social rejection and loss of femininity. Performing competitively has a profound impact on a woman's sense of identity and on her struggle to balance caregiving, work, and relationships. As Gilligan (6.Gilligan C In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass1982Google Scholar, p 159) described some of the professional women she interviewed, “[women] regard their professional activities as jeopardizing their own sense of themselves, and the conflict they encounter between achievement and care leaves them either divided in judgment or feeling betrayed.” These fundamental tensions need not be understood as male/female struggles, but instead as struggles between models of dominance and partnership, or hierarchy and cooperation. The pervasive acceptance of the dominator model itself presents a threatening atmosphere of win/lose that stubbornly permeates interactions between men and women. The allegiance to a hierarchy of power by its very nature requires constant testing and ranking of self against others in order to maintain power or position. Women as well as men perpetuate the dominator model. Diane Margolis (12.Margolis DR The Managers: Corporate Life in America. William Morrow and Co, New York, NY1979Google Scholar) points out that many women have bought into the “male market place myth” that their primary measure of worth to their family is making money and getting ahead. “Getting ahead” is a hierarchical way of thinking that connotes awareness of ranking in relation to others, where success is paired with a focus on material acquisition. In the workplace, a partnership approach does not exclude leadership, but the leadership is balanced rather than dictatorial. Walking the Empowerment Tightrope, by Robert Crosby (13.Crosby RP Walking the Empowerment Tightrope: Balancing Management Authority & Employee Influence. Organization Design and Development, Inc, King of Prussia, Pa1992Google Scholar), looks at how to apply this balance between leadership and cooperation in business. Crosby states, “The role of leadership cannot be abdicated. There is no democracy without authority. The art of managing is to balance the imagined polarities between authority and influence” (13.Crosby RP Walking the Empowerment Tightrope: Balancing Management Authority & Employee Influence. Organization Design and Development, Inc, King of Prussia, Pa1992Google Scholar, p 2). It does not replace supervisors, but asks supervisors to continue to make the best decisions possible with the professional input of the team. It does not exclude power, but shares power for the common goal. It does not avoid assertiveness, but invites and expects participation from each partner. Crosby further states “the organization of the future must achieve the balance we are describing here. The leader must wield strong enough authority to create a participative culture…” (13.Crosby RP Walking the Empowerment Tightrope: Balancing Management Authority & Employee Influence. Organization Design and Development, Inc, King of Prussia, Pa1992Google Scholar, p 6). More and more businesses today are seeing the advantages of inviting employees to participate in the decision-making process. John Collier, plant manager of Findley Adhesives Inc, reports such “empowerment” systems pay off fast (Reno Gazette-Journal. January 13, 1992: 13). For Findley, it entails forming problem-solving teams, doing regular brainstorming, giving employees the power to develop ideas, allowing front-line employees to hire their coworkers, and having front-line workers develop personal relationships with firms where their employer does business. In 1991 Findley's production soared 26% while its 22-person staff worked 3,500 fewer hours. Since adopting the empowerment system in 1986, Findley employees have redesigned its manufacturing process, curtailed bottlenecks, and cut down on accidents. “Now management is just part of the spoke in the wheel and equal with employees,” Collier reported. One way that dietitians can increase their own awareness of the dominator model and the impact it has on both colleagues and clients is through gender-sensitive literature. Gilligan's work on moral development, In a Different Voice(6.Gilligan C In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass1982Google Scholar), and Eisler's book The Chalice and the Blade(3.Eisler R The Chalice and the Blade. Harper & Row, San Francisco, Calif1987Google Scholar), provide the historical background of the dominator and partnership models; these and Prisoners of Men's Dreams(2.Gordon S Prisoners of Men's Dreams: Striking Out for a New Feminine Future. Little, Brown & Co, Boston, Mass1991Google Scholar) or A Choice of Heroes(10.Gerzon M A Choice of Heroes. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Mass1982Google Scholar) are among the books that could be used in university seminars or professional discussion groups to address gender awareness and attitudes toward dominator and partnership models. On an educational level, dietitians also need to reexamine the portrayal of the family unit. Do the case studies, dialogues, and films used for instruction represent stereotypic males and females, or do they also represent change toward more balanced coexistence or toward restructuring of a hierarchical model? Are mothers and fathers invited to participate equally in the care of and responsibility for their children? Are the dual career needs of spouses taken into account in the meetings and plans devised for couples and their children? Are these issues ever discussed with students or clients within the context of therapeutic change? Education and socialization have been important tools in the transference of the dominator system, and thus planned changes in our educational approaches and socialization strategies are potential keys to positive changes toward more equality." @default.
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• W2058175038 title "Gender dominance in the work setting: Implications for dietitians" @default.
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