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• W2067125662 abstract "Hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevalence is poorly mapped in the East African region; with the advent of novel HCV therapies, better epidemiological data are required to target the infection. We sought to estimate HCV prevalence in healthy Malawian mothers and assess mother-to-child transmission (MTCT); context is provided by reviewing previously published HCV prevalence data from the region. Using ELISA screening and confirmatory blot, serological testing of 418 healthy Malawian mothers for HCV was performed. To examine MTCT, the children of any positive women were also tested for HCV; all children had malignant disease unrelated to hepatocellular carcinoma. We compared our results to published literature on HCV prevalence in Malawi and its neighbouring countries. Three of 418 women were HCV reactive by ELISA; two were confirmed positive by immunoblot (0.5%). One child of an HCV-infected mother was HCV seropositive. The literature review revealed HCV prevalence ranging from 0 to 7.2% in the region, being highest in Tanzania and specifically for cohorts of inpatients and HIV-co-infected people. The overall estimated prevalence of HCV in Malawi was 1.0% (95%CI 0.7–1.4) when all studies were included (including this one), but lower in healthy cohorts alone at 0.3% (95%CI 0.1–1.2). This is the first study using confirmatory tests to examine HCV prevalence in healthy Malawian mothers; the prevalence was low. Future studies need to address the source of infection in healthy women. La prévalence du virus de l'hépatite C (VHC) est mal cartographiée dans la région d'Afrique de l'Est. Avec l'avènement des nouveaux traitements contre le VHC, de meilleures données épidémiologiques sont nécessaires pour cibler l'infection. Nous avons cherché à estimer la prévalence du VHC chez les mères malawiennes saines et évaluer la transmission mère-enfant (TME). Le contexte est fourni par l'examen des données de prévalence du VHC précédemment publiées pour la région. En utilisant le dépistage ELISA et la confirmation par immunoblot, des tests sérologiques ont été effectués pour le VHC sur 418 mères saines. Pour examiner la TME, les enfants de toutes les femmes testées positives ont été aussi testés pour le VHC. Tous les enfants avaient une maladie maligne sans rapport avec le carcinome hépatocellulaire. Nous avons comparé nos résultats à ceux de la littérature publiée sur la prévalence du VHC au Malawi et des pays voisins. Trois des 418 femmes étaient réactives pour le VHC par ELISA, deux ont été confirmées positives par immunoblot (0,5%). Un enfant d'une mère infectée par le VHC était séropositif pour le VHC. La revue de la littérature a révélé une prévalence du VHC allant de 0 à 7,2% dans la région, étant la plus élevée en Tanzanie et plus particulièrement pour les cohortes de patients hospitalisés et les personnes coinfectées par le VIH. La prévalence globale estimée du VHC au Malawi était de 1,0% (IC95%: 0,7-1,4) lorsque toutes les études ont été incluses (y compris celle-ci) dans l'analyse, mais elle était plus faible dans les cohortes d'individus sains seules à 0,3% (IC95%: 0,1-1,2). Il s'agit ici de la première étude utilisant des tests de confirmation pour examiner la prévalence du VHC chez les mères malawiennes saines; la prévalence était faible. Les études futures devraient s'intéresser à la source de l'infection chez les femmes saines. No existe un mapeo adecuado sobre la prevalencia del virus de la Hepatitis C (VHC) en la región de África Oriental; con la aparición de nuevas terapias para el VHC, una mejora en los datos epidemiológicos disponibles es necesaria con el fin de combatir la infección. Buscamos calcular la prevalencia del VHC en madres sanas de Malawi y evaluar la transmisión madre-hijo (TMH); el contexto se provee mediante la revisión de datos previamente publicados sobre la prevalencia del VHC en la región. Se realizó una prueba serológica para VHC a 418 madres sanas de Malawi, mediante un cribado inicial con ELISA y una prueba confirmatoria con blot. Para determinar la TMH, la prueba se realizó también a los hijos de cualquier madre positiva para VHC; todos los niños tenían una enfermedad maligna no relacionado con el carcinoma hepatocelular. Hemos comparado nuestros resultados con aquellos previamente publicados sobre la prevalencia del HCV en Malawi y países vecinos. Tres de 418 mujeres dieron positivo para VHC por ELISA; dos fueron confirmadas por immunoblot (0.5%). Un hijo de una mujer infectadas con VHC era seropositivo. La revisión de la literatura revelaba una prevalencia del VHC de entre 0 y 7.2% en la región, siendo más alta en Tanzania y específicamente para cohortes de pacientes ingresados y personas coinfectadas con VIH. La prevalencia general del VHC calculada para Malawi era del 1.0% (IC 95% 0.7-1.4) cuando se incluían todos los estudios (incluyendo este), pero era menor en cohortes de personas sanas con un 0.3% (IC 95% 0.1-1.2). Este es el primer estudio que utiliza pruebas confirmatorias para examinar la prevalencia del VHC en madres sanas de Malawi; la prevalencia era baja. Se requieren estudios que se centren en los focos de infección en mujeres sanas. Hepatitis C virus causes hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma 1. It is a bloodborne infection and prevalent among intravenous drug users (IVDU) 2 and men who have sex with men (MSM), particularly those with HIV co-infection 3, 4 and their contacts. African and Asian countries are thought to have the highest burden of infection, but current prevalence estimates are variable 5. In Malawi, the reported prevalence of HCV in healthy blood donors ranges from 0.1% to 18% 6, 7. Heterosexual transmission has been reported as an unlikely route of transmission in Malawi 8. Other modes of transmission, such as iatrogenic spread in medical facilities, or among intravenous drug users, are thought to be rare 9, 10. A study from Tanzania, a neighbouring country, reports that MTCT is low 11, but this has not been assessed in Malawi. We examined the prevalence of HCV retrospectively as part of an ongoing study of infections and cancers among children in Malawi 12. We report our findings in the context of previous HCV prevalence studies from Malawi and its neighbouring countries by way of a comprehensive literature review. Mapping HCV prevalence is a prelude to possible eradication of HCV in lower income countries 13 following recent success with novel HCV therapies 14. Sera from 418 paired Malawian women and their children were collected between 2006 and 2010 and stored at −80 °C until testing. Samples had been originally collected as part of a childhood malignancy and bloodborne virus (BBV) study at the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital in Blantyre, Malawi 12. The majority of children had been diagnosed with Burkitt's lymphoma and the remainder had a range of other tumours. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Oxford Tropical Research Ethics Committee and the Malawian College of Medicine Research and Ethics Committee. Details of the original study are published elsewhere 12. Sera from the healthy women were screened in duplicate by MP Diagnostics HCV ELISA 3.0 following manufacturer's instructions (MP Biomedicals, Cambridge, UK). Borderline and reactive samples were retested. Repeatedly ELISA reactive sera underwent confirmatory testing using HCV BLOT 3.0 (MP Biomedicals). Positivity was defined according to the manufacturer's guidelines. Sera of children of HCV-positive mothers were tested using both ELISA and immunoblot. The ELISA used in this study tests for the detection of antibodies in sera towards the HCV antigens NS5, NS3 (c 200), NS4 (c 200) and the core (c22); the strip immunoblots are a qualitative enzyme immunoassay and contain recombinant HCV proteins from the capsid, NS3, NS4 and NS5 regions of the HCV genome; higher sensitivity is reported for the immunoblots compared to the ELISA. For the comprehensive review, PubMed was searched in March 2014 using methods appropriate for systematic review; the search terms were as follows: ‘HCV’ or ‘Hepatitis C’ in combination with ‘Malawi’, ‘Mozambique’, ‘Tanzania’ or ‘Zambia’. Data of demographic factors, cohort size, HCV prevalence and whether or not a confirmatory test (CT) was employed were extracted. Publications were excluded that only reported reactive screening tests in the absence of CT, HCV prevalence in refugee cohorts and in patients with jaundice or liver disease. Total HCV prevalence by country, standard error and 95% confidence interval, using the Wilson interval to take account of the small anticipated prevalence, were calculated where more than one study was available. Informed and written consent was obtained from all participants according to Oxford Tropical Research Ethics Committee and the Malawian College of Medicine Research and Ethics Committee ethics. Paired sera from 418 paired Malawian women and children were available for testing. All children attended the hospital for childhood malignancies; none had hepatocellular carcinoma. At the time of sampling, the children were of a mean age of 6.6 years. Three of 418 mothers' sera were repeatedly HCV ELISA reactive. Two reactive samples were confirmed to be positive by immunoblot. All three children of these mothers were ELISA non-reactive, but the serum of one of these children was repeatedly HCV positive in the more sensitive immunoblot test. We therefore report two (0.5%) HCV-positive mothers and one HCV-positive child. The 51-year-old HCV-positive woman with a HCV-negative child was HIV negative and reported one lifetime sexual partner. The second positive mother was also HIV negative and reported one lifetime sexual partner; her HCV-positive daughter was 4 years of age, HIV negative and had no blood transfusion history. Fresh whole blood was unavailable; therefore, HCV RNA levels could not be measured to report disease activity. To increase our understanding of the HCV prevalence in the East African region around Malawi, we conducted a comprehensive review of published HCV prevalence data. Our search returned a total of 50 studies, of which 14 met the inclusion criteria. Of those, four publications were from Malawi, three from Mozambique, six from Tanzania and one from Zambia (Table 1). The HCV prevalence ranged from 0% to 7.2% and was highest regionally in Tanzania and for patient cohorts of hospital inpatients and HIV-co-infected people. The prevalence rates aggregated by country are summarised in Table 2. The overall estimated prevalence of HCV in Malawi was 1.0% (95%CI 0.7–1.4) when all studies were included, including the one reported here, but was much lower in healthy cohorts alone at 0.3% (95%CI 0.1–1.2). The HCV prevalence in Tanzania appeared higher (2.1% [95%CI 1.6–2.6]), but this might be due to high prevalence of HCV in just one study among apparently healthy women 15. In our analysis, Mozambique had an HCV prevalence intermediate between Malawi and Tanzania; Zambia's prevalence was similar to healthy Malawians, but only one study met our inclusion criteria (Table 2). This seroprevalence study of HCV in paired mothers and their children in Malawi detected a low HCV prevalence of 0.5% in a cohort of healthy women who represent the female general population of Malawi. Our review showed that HCV prevalence is low in healthy adult volunteers and blood donors in the East African region, but higher among individuals who were hospitalised or HIV co-infected 16, 9. Tanzania has the highest and Zambia the lowest reported HCV prevalence. Our literature review purposefully concentrated upon Malawi and its neighbouring countries and only included studies that used comparable methodological stringency (screening + confirmation); other reviews on HCV prevalence in Africa, which include some data for these East African nations, are available for HIV-co-infected individuals 5, 17, pregnant women 18 and general populations 19. Although we confirmed low prevalence of HCV in healthy women, one of two children of HCV-positive mothers was HCV positive. A study from Tanzania reported no MTCT in 43 children born to HCV-positive mothers 11. The exact transmission risk factors for our cohort remain uncertain. In general, contaminated-needle re-usage or contaminated-needle-stick injuries, contaminated blood transfusions and unprotected sexual intercourse, especially in HIV-positive men, are highly associated with HCV transmission. Blood transfusions are routinely tested for HCV in Malawi, but we are not aware of needle exchange programmes for harm reduction. HCV prevalence in IVDU and HIV-positive MSM has not been studied extensively in this region. Both factors may directly or indirectly play a role in HCV transmission to women. A study by Chimphambano et al. 20 examined HCV prevalence in male and female Malawian prison inmates. While 86% of the inmates reported being aware of intercourse between male prisoners and 2.1% identified themselves as being homosexual, HCV prevalence was reported to be 0%. Injectable drug use was not reported in this study. Only one study in Tanzania 21 has compared HCV prevalence in this high-risk group, examining HCV prevalence in 267 injecting drug users (IDU) and 163 drug users that had never injected (NIDU). The IDUs had a HCV prevalence of 27.7% whereas that of NIDUs was 1.8%, although no confirmatory test was performed. A further study 22 did not meet our inclusion criteria but conducted research in 509 Tanzanian MSM and found HCV prevalence to be 14%. IVDU is rare in women compared to men, but data in our cohort for IVDU or having contact/living with someone who was an active intravenous drug user were not available to us and neither was the transfusion history and possibility of iatrogenic spread for the mothers. The HCV-positive child had no recorded blood transfusions, but information on the child being breastfed by a wet nurse instead of its mother or any other medical intervention was similarly not available. Malawi is known to have a high HIV prevalence 23, and HIV infection is a known risk factor for HCV infection. However, neither of the HCV-infected women in our study were HIV co-infected. HIV prevalence in paediatric inpatients in Malawi has been reported to be 8.8% 23, but the HCV-positive child in our cohort was also HIV negative. Therefore, we can only hypothesise that the mothers may have acquired their HCV from having been either breastfed as a child by somebody infected or from contact with an infected partner or contaminated needles/instruments or transfusions before transfusion screening for bloodborne viruses was in place. The HCV-positive child may have been infected through contact with contaminated needles/instruments or by being breastfed by a HCV-positive wet nurse. Our study has several strengths: the sample size studied was large, children's sera were matched, and both ELISA screening and a more sensitive confirmatory test were employed. We compared our data with HCV prevalence of neighbouring countries by conducting a literature review. The study's limitation was the relative age of sera, the fact that not all children were tested for HCV irrespective of their mother's results and that fresh whole blood samples were not available to test for HCV RNA and liver function. In summary, we report that HCV is prevalent at low levels in mothers living in Malawi. It is unclear how these women acquired their infection. HCV high-risk groups have not been studied in this region. Research on these groups and their partners and children may inform transmission prevention and eradication programmes. The original study of infections and childhood cancer was funded by Cancer Research UK. NM was supported by the Rhodes Trust. Analyses reported here were part-funded by the Wellcome Trust and the University of York. We acknowledge Professor Charles Lacey, University of York, for part funding JMF. Preliminary data were presented at the 16th International Conference on Human Retrovirology, Montreal, Canada, 2013." @default.
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• W2067125662 title "Prevalence of hepatitis C virus in mothers and their children in Malawi" @default.
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