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• W2074987120 abstract "Many of the most serious crimes that fall within the justificatory scope of the harm principle do so constitutively. They do so in the sense that the harm that the crime is designed to prevent is a definitional element of the crime itself. Murder, for example, cannot be committed without causing death--the very harm that legitimates its criminalization. But it is uncontroversial that, even among crimes addressing harm to others, some offenses are legitimately enacted notwithstanding that their defining elements do not require a harm. (1) Indeed, in differing forms such crimes pervade our criminal law. Besides murder, human life is also protected by attempted murder, dangerous driving, unlawful gun possession, (2) and a multiplicity of health-and-safety regulations. In these non-constitutive offenses, the ultimate harm (3) that justifies such crimes is remote from the crime itself. The field is large. A wide variety of non-constitutive offenses exists to prevent harm. It includes what criminal lawyers traditionally call the offenses, which prohibit actors from inciting, (4) conspiring, or attempting to commit a (substantive) crime. The inchoate crimes are generic, capable of attaching to any substantive crime, whether constitutive or non-constitutive. Other offenses operate in a more specific, preemptive manner, by identifying and criminalizing some overt step that is typically taken toward committing a particular substantive crime. These (5) offenses include burglary (entry as a trespasser with intent to commit theft, etc.) and, indeed, the doubly-inchoate offense of going equipped--merely being out and about with instruments of burglary. (6) Alternatively, many risk-based offenses safeguard against conduct that simply increases the likelihood of causing harm, in as much as the conduct creates a risk, or heightens the risk, that harm will result. Dangerous driving is an example of the latter. The driving is not itself harmful, and need not be directed toward increasing the risk of injury to others; it is criminalized primarily because it does increase that risk. Non-constitutive offenses pose problems for criminalization theory because they seem not to fit neatly within the harm principle. Prima facie, they generate over-criminalization, in that they prohibit instances of conduct that are not themselves harmful. The scope of risk-based offenses includes harmful instances of the same type of conduct; but substantive-inchoate offenses do not even do that. Carrying the tools of burglary is never itself harmful. Either way, non-constitutive offenses ask us to forgo options that may be valuable and that are sometimes (or even always) harmless. Not only may I not culpably hurt you, I may not do various other things just in case you receive an injury. Taken to extremes, this threatens severely to undermine my liberty, since scenarios exist in which almost anything I do might ultimately affect your chances of suffering harm. Building upon an earlier foray into the topic, (7) in this essay we explore the scope of the harm principle and its application to non-constitutive crimes. As we shall see, the governing criminalization principles differ across various types of such offenses. But we begin their analysis with one fundamental principle that unites them. General Requirement of Wrongfulness The foundational principle of any criminalization inquiry applies to non-constitutive offenses too. It is that any prohibited act, remote from harm or no, must be wrongful. This follows from the very nature of the criminal law as a condemnatory institution. (8) One cannot appropriately be blamed except for doing something wrong. Any formal judgment of blame, including a criminal conviction, must be predicated upon norm-violating conduct--like all blaming verdicts, it expresses moral reproof of a person for that norm-violating conduct. This may sometimes be obscured by the language of mens rea: a defendant is taken to be culpable (his mens is deemed to be rea) when he intends or foresees the actus reus, or sometimes if he is negligent with respect to its occurrence. …" @default.
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• W2074987120 date "2009-05-01" @default.
• W2074987120 modified "2023-10-14" @default.
• W2074987120 title "Remote Harms and Non-constitutive Crimes" @default.
• W2074987120 doi "https://doi.org/10.1080/07311290902831441" @default.
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