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• W2080320597 abstract "BioanalysisVol. 5, No. 2 EditorialFree AccessIn vivo electrochemical measurements: past, present and futureMichael A JohnsonMichael A JohnsonDepartment of Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA. Search for more papers by this authorEmail the corresponding author at johnsonm@ku.eduPublished Online:21 Jan 2013https://doi.org/10.4155/bio.12.322AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInReddit Keywords: braincarbon-fiber microelectrodedopaminein vivoRalph AdamsvoltammetryWhen I attended the 14th International Conference on in vivo methods in London (UK) this past September, I was struck by the diversity of electrochemical applications used to study the CNS in biological preparations ranging from cultured cells and acutely dissociated brain tissue slices to whole animals, anesthetized and awake. These applications include creative approaches, such as the combination of optogenetics with sub-second voltammetric measurements. Since the pioneering work carried out by Ralph ‘Buzz’ Adams and coworkers in the early 1970s, in which they demonstrated that electrochemistry could be used as a tool to measure fluctuations in levels of electroactive neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in whole animals (reviewed by Adams [1]), the field of in vivo electrochemistry has grown steadily over the past four decades. Adams’ early slow-scan voltammetry experiments, which made use of carbon-paste macroelectrodes, have given way to high temporal resolution voltammetry measurements at micron- and sub-micron-scale electrodes. Similar voltammetric and amperometric techniques have also been combined with other methods, including electrophysiology and enzyme-mediated biosensors [2], thereby expanding the tools available to investigators. The focus of this commentary is to highlight the early contributions of Ralph Adams and discuss how these pioneering works propelled the entire discipline of in vivo electrochemistry, a field in which many of his former students and postdoctoral research associates are still active, to the point where it is now. I contend that, as these methods are refined and applied, they will become even more instrumental in understanding the mechanisms of disorders that afflict the human CNS.Historical perspective: the early years of in vivo electrochemistryElectrophysiological studies of neurotransmission laid their foundations as early as 1660 when the Dutch microscopist and natural scientist Jan Swammerdam induced the contraction of frog muscle by stimulation of the nerve (for an interesting review by Verkhratsky et al. see [3]). Thus, electrophysiological measurements and manipulations are not new; however, it is here where I would like to draw a fundamental distinction between electrophysiological and electrochemical measurements. Electrophysiological methods, which are still widely used, involve the measurement of either small currents or potential changes resulting directly from the movement of ions across cell membranes. These ions are typically transported by channels as a result of action potentials. These currents or potentials are measured with a microelectrode located near, on, or within the cell(s) of interest. In contrast, amperometric electrochemical methods measure currents caused by the oxidation and/or reduction of electroactive molecules. Therefore, rather than measuring the number of times a cell ‘fires’, the number of molecules released as a result can be measured.Adams took a somewhat unconventional research path. Prior to 1969, his group focused on studying electrochemical methods of carrying out oxidations and understanding the mechanisms of organic electrode oxidations. The publication list on his resumé included such titles as ‘Oxidations at mercury halide anodes’ [4] and ‘Voltammetry at solid electrodes: anodic polarography of the phenylenediamines’ [5]. Of note, Adams submitted the aforementioned mercury halide paper with Ted Kuwana, his first PhD student, who would later become Professor of Chemistry at The Ohio State University and then Distinguished Professor of Chemistry at the University of Kansas. In the early 1970s, the focus of Adams’ research shifted to the electrochemical characterization of electroactive neurotransmitters, and initial electrochemical measurements of brain catecholamines were subsequently published [6].Initial experiments in which catecholamines were measured in the brain were conducted in the ventricles, cavities within the brain that serve as conduits through which cerebrospinal fluid flows and carries out metabolites. These data, obtained using a graphite paste electrode, were an astonishing technical advance at the time because they had demonstrated, for the first time, the direct electrochemical measurement of endogenous brain metabolites. The Adams group then carried this methodology a step further, measuring changes in the levels of neurochemicals within the brain tissue. This was a difficult endeavor for several reasons [1]. First, electrodes needed to be as small as practical to minimize tissue damage, as well as provide information about the local cellular environment. Moreover, cleaning of the electrodes during experiments was impractical because removal and replacement would cause excessive tissue damage. To further complicate data interpretation, there was also the theoretical issue of whether or not the electrode detected neurochemicals released directly from tissue or those diffusing to the electrode through the cerebrospinal fluid. Finally, perhaps the most difficult complication, was the ubiquitous presence of high concentrations of ascorbate, which oxidizes at potentials similar to that of the catecholamines that Adams and coworkers aimed to detect.Adams’ graphite paste ‘ventricle-type’ electrode had a diameter of approximately 0.5 mm and could be deformed by the tissue during insertion. For this reason, a smaller, hardened carbon-based electrode (80 µm diameter), constructed from Nujol, graphite and epoxy, was developed [1]. The initial effort revealed several overlapping peaks in the CV. A peak occurring at approximately +0.3 to +0.4 V on the anodic sweep appeared to be ascorbate. It is possible that dopamine or norepinephrine was also buried in this peak. A peak at +0.8 V, similar to that of homovanillic acid, was also measured in the ventricles. Nevertheless, glutathione also oxidizes within this potential range and may also have been a component responsible for this current. This early trace spurred much early enthusiasm and created lots of interesting avenues for analytical chemists to pursue.Carbon-fiber microsensors for in vivo recordingsThe work by Adams and coworkers was groundbreaking; but, communication between neurons occurs in fractions of a second and not the 20 s or so required to obtain a conventional cyclic voltammogram. Measurements collected at high temporal resolutions (sub-second), however, would require a sensor with the enhanced diffusional characteristics of microelectrodes. With the development and application of fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) at carbon-fiber microelectrodes, developed largely through the work of Wightman and coworkers, electroactive biogenic amine neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, can be detected on sub-second timescales. This high temporal resolution allowed for the processes of release and uptake to be measured separately [7].The late 1990s saw the advent of electrochemical dopamine-release measurements in awake and ambulatory rats. Initial experiments measured the release of dopamine in response to electrical stimulation of the neural pathway [8]. These endeavors gave way to more elegant experiments in which spontaneous dopamine-release events were measured in relation to well-defined, quantifiable behaviors. One particularly interesting study by the Wightman group examined how sub-second dopamine levels change as rats self-administer cocaine by pressing a lever, situated in the recording chamber, in response to a light cue [9]. Dopamine release was found to increase prior to the rat pressing the lever and receiving the intravenous dose of cocaine, providing neurochemical evidence for dopamine playing a role in reward. Importantly, this experiment would not have been possible without the temporal resolution afforded by FSCV, nor would it likely have even occurred had Adams and coworkers not pioneered the electrochemical measurement of neurotransmitters in the brain.Moving into the futureSince these more recent developments, the use of electrochemical measurements has flourished. Existing technologies have been applied to new, genetically altered rodent models. For example, our group has used FSCV in brain slices to determine that the dopamine reserve pool is depleted in R6/2 mice, which model Huntington’s disease [10]. Additionally, FSCV has also been exploited to study Parkinson’s disease in alpha-synuclein model mice [11] and mice that model dystonia [12]. It is apparent that, as more genetically altered animals come on line, and as more investigators become aware of the uses of these models, these electrochemical techniques will find even more mainstream use toward understanding the underlying mechanisms of specific disease states. As it stands now, I believe that these uses of electrochemical methods are currently under-utilized and are poised for growth in the coming years.The application of electrochemical measurements has also been expanded to simpler, nonmammalian systems. For example, Venton and coworkers have obtained electrochemical measurements of the release of selected neurotransmitters, including dopamine, in the CNS of fruit fly larvae [13]. Similarly, Ewing and coworkers independently measured changes in levels of exogenously added dopamine in adult fruit flies [14]. One of the advantages of using smaller invertebrates, such as fruit flies, is that their nervous systems tend to be simpler and measurements can be obtained under more controlled environments. Moreover, the genetic makeup of fruit flies may be easily modified, so that mutants modeling disease states may be easily developed. I see the expanded use of these simpler animals models, which represent an alternative to vertebrates such as mice and rats, as another under-developed area in which bioanalytical chemists could make a substantial impact.Existing electrochemical measurements have also been tailored to detect neurotransmitters and neuromodulators other than dopamine. For example, the Sombers group has modified FSCV measurements to detect hydrogen peroxide in the brain [15]. In another innovative application, the Hashemi group at Wayne State has adapted the use of FSCV for the deposition and then stripping of copper from the carbon-fiber electrode surface [16]. In this way, real-time, sub-second measurements of copper can be obtained. These new applications of FSCV, as well as others not mentioned here, should allow analytical neuroscientists to learn even more about CNS function.One final area that shows promise is combining FSCV with optical methods. Members of the Sulzer research group developed an elegant technique in which they combined the use of synthetic false fluorescent neurotransmitters, which are taken up into neurons by dopamine transporters and loaded into vesicles by vesicular monoamine transporters, with voltammetric and amperometric electrochemical measurements in single cells and brain slices [17]. Fluorescence imaging using multiphoton confocal microscopy allowed for the locations of vesicles to be monitored in real-time while measuring catecholamine release. Optogenetics is another rapidly growing field that allows the manipulation of biological systems that are genetically altered so that light application activates a biological process. A distinct advantage is that events can be stimulated with millisecond temporal precision, allowing for the measuring of events on physiologically relevant timescales [18]. This approach facilitated the measurement of neurotransmitter release in fruit fly larvae, where the use of electrical stimulation would have been cumbersome [13]. Budygin and coworkers demonstrated the feasibility of this approach in rats genetically modified to express channel rhodopsin-2 (ChR-2), a light-sensitive Ca2+ ion channel, on dopamine neurons [19]. Light stimulation of the substantia nigra resulted in dopamine release in the striatum. The Cragg research group later used mice, engineered to express ChR-2 on cholinergic neurons, to show that coordinated firing of this population of neurons triggers dopamine release in the striatum [20]. In summary, these examples reveal that the combination of optical and electrochemical techniques can potentially yield insights unattainable by electrochemical methods alone.ConclusionAs we move forward, it appears that one of the strengths of electrochemical measurements in living brain tissue is the ability to combine it with complementary methods. These methods include behavioral measurements, electrophysiological measurements and optical methods, to name just a few. Moreover, these methods are being applied to model biological systems not traditionally used for obtaining electrochemical measurements. Indeed, we have come a long way since Buzz Adams’ ground-breaking work with carbon-paste electrodes used to measure homovanillic acid levels in the ventricles; however, it seems that this field, if not still in its infancy, is not even close to reaching its full potential. The techniques and biological systems I mentioned in this Editorial should see expanded applications ranging from fundamental studies of neuronal function to the investigation of neurological disease states, yielding new discoveries.AcknowledgementsThe author acknowledges D Bailey, S Kaplan and M Shin for the proofreading of this manuscript.Financial & competing interests disclosureThe author has no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.References1 Adams RN. Probing brain chemistry with electroanalytical techniques. Anal. Chem.48(14),1128A–1138A (1976).Crossref, Google Scholar2 Wilson GS, Johnson MA. In-vivo electrochemistry: what can we learn about living systems? Chem. Rev.108(7),2462–2481 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar3 Verkhratsky A, Krishtal OA, Peterson OH. Pflügers. Arch. Eur. J. Physiol.453,233–247 (2006).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar4 Kuwana T, Adams RN. Oxidations at mercury halide electrodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc.79(13),3609–3610 (1973).Crossref, Google Scholar5 Parker RE, Adams RN. Voltammetry at solid electrodes: anodic polarography of the phenylenediamines. Anal. Chem.28(5),828–832 (1973).Crossref, Google Scholar6 Kissinger PT, Hart JB, Adams RN. Voltammetry in brain tissue – a new neurophysiological measurement. Brain Res.55(1),209–213 (1973).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar7 Stamford JA, Kruk ZL, Millar J, Wightman RM. Striatal dopamine uptake in the rat: in vivo analysis by fast cyclic voltammetry. Neurosci. Lett.51(1),133–138 (1984).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar8 Garris PA, Christensen JR, Rebec GV, Wightman RM. Real-time measurement of electrically evoked extracellular dopamine in the striatum of freely moving rats. J. Neurochem.68(1),152–161 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar9 Phillips PE, Robinson DL, Stuber GD, Carelli RM, Wightman RM. Real-time measurements of phasic changes in extracellular dopamine concentration in freely moving rats by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Methods Mol. Med.79,443–464 (2003).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar10 Ortiz AN, Kurth BJ, Osterhaus GL, Johnson MA. Dysregulation of intracellular dopamine stores revealed in the R6/2 mouse striatum. J. Neurochem.112(3),755–761 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar11 Platt NJ, Gispert S, Auburger G, Cragg SJ. Striatal dopamine transmission is subtly modified in human A53Tα-synuclein overexpressing mice. PLoS ONE7(5),e36397(2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar12 Bao L, Patel JC, Walker RH, Shashidharan P, Rice ME. Dysregulation of striatal dopamine release in a mouse model of dystonia. J. Neurochem.114(6),1781–1791 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar13 Vickrey TL, Condron B, Venton BJ. Detection of endogenous dopamine changes in Drosophila melanogaster using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Anal. Chem.81(22),9306–9313 (2009).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar14 Makos MA, Kim YC, Han KA, Heien ML, Ewing AG. In vivo electrochemical measurements of exogenously applied dopamine in Drosophila melanogaster. Anal. Chem.81(5),1848–1854 (2009).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar15 Sanford AL, Morton SW, Whitehouse KL et al. Voltammetric detection of hydrogen peroxide at carbon fiber microelectrodes. Anal. Chem.82(12),5205–5210 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar16 Pathirathna P, Yang Y, Forzley K, McElmurry SP, Hashemi P. Fast-scan deposition-stripping voltammetry at carbon-fiber microelectrodes: real-time, subsecond, mercury free measurements of copper. Anal. Chem.84(15),6298–6302 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar17 Gubernator NG, Zhang H, Staal RG et al. Fluorescent false neurotransmitters visualize dopamine release from individual presynaptic terminals. Science324(5933),1441–1444 (2009).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar18 Zhang F, Gradinaru V, Adamantidis AR et al. Optogenetic interrogation of neural circuits: technology for probing mammalian brain structures. Nat. Protoc.5(3),439–456 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar19 Bass CE, Grinevich VP, Vance ZB, Sullivan RP, Bonin KD, Budygin EA. Optogenetic control of striatal dopamine release in rats. J. Neurochem.114(5),1344–1352 (2010).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar20 Threlfell S, Lalic T, Platt NJ, Jennings KA, Deisseroth K, Cragg SJ. Striatal dopamine release is triggered by synchronized activity in cholinergic interneurons. Neuron75(1),58–64 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google ScholarFiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited ByA Journey from the Drops of Mercury to the Mysterious Shores of the Brain: The 100-Year Adventure of Voltammetry22 August 2022 | Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 6Bioelektrochemie1 January 2020 | , Vol. 108Wafer level characterisation of microelectrodes for electrochemical sensing applicationsBioapplications of Electrochemical Sensors and BiosensorsResearch on neural information detecting system measuring neuroelectricity in hippocampus in vivo and dopamine in vitro based on microelectrode arrayVertically Aligned Carbon Nanotube-Sheathed Carbon Fibers as Pristine Microelectrodes for Selective Monitoring of Ascorbate in Vivo28 March 2014 | Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 86, No. 8Platinum porous nanoparticles for the detection of cancer biomarkers: what are the advantages over existing techniques?Na Liu, Zifeng Wang & Zhanfang Ma7 May 2014 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 6, No. 7Characterisation of Complex Electrode Processes using Simultaneous Impedance Spectroscopy and Electrochemical Nanogravimetric Measurements24 February 2014 | ChemPlusChem, Vol. 79, No. 3Voltammetric concentration measurements in diffusion-hindered media24 July 2013 | Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, Vol. 17, No. 12 Vol. 5, No. 2 Follow us on social media for the latest updates Metrics History Published online 21 January 2013 Published in print January 2013 Information© Future Science LtdKeywordsbraincarbon-fiber microelectrodedopaminein vivoRalph AdamsvoltammetryAcknowledgementsThe author acknowledges D Bailey, S Kaplan and M Shin for the proofreading of this manuscript.Financial & competing interests disclosureThe author has no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.PDF download" @default.
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