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W2098463721 abstract "Abstract: In 1998, tropical sea surface temperatures were the highest on record, topping off a 50-year trend for some tropical oceans. In the same year, coral reefs around the world suffered the most extensive and severe bleaching ( loss of symbiotic algae) and subsequent mortality on record. These events may not be attributable to local stressors or natural variability alone but were likely induced by an underlying global phenomenon. It is probable that anthropogenic global warming has contributed to the extensive coral bleaching that has occurred simultaneously throughout the reef regions of the world. The geographic extent, increasing frequency, and regional severity of mass bleaching events are an apparent result of a steadily rising baseline of marine temperatures, combined with regionally specific El Niño and La Niña events. The repercussions of the 1998 mass bleaching and mortality events will be far-reaching. Human populations dependent on reef services face losses of marine biodiversity, fisheries, and shoreline protection. Coral bleaching events may become more frequent and severe as the climate continues to warm, exposing coral reefs to an increasingly hostile environment. This global threat to corals compounds the effects of more localized anthropogenic factors that already place reefs at risk. Significant attention needs to be given to the monitoring of coral reef ecosystems, research on the projected and realized effects of global climate change, and measures to curtail greenhouse gas emissions. Even those reefs with well-enforced legal protection as marine sanctuaries, or those managed for sustainable use, are threatened by global climate change. Resumen: En 1998, las temperaturas superficiales en mares tropicales alcanzaron los niveles más altos reportados, sobrepasando una tendencia de 50 años en algunos océanos tropicales. En el mismo año, los arrecifes de coral alrededor del mundo sufrieron el evento más extenso y severo de blanqueamiento ( pérdida de algas simbióticas) y una subsecuente mortalidad récord. Estos eventos pueden no ser atribuibles a estresores locales o a la variabilidad natural por si sola. Por el contrario, las elevadas temperaturas superficiales y los eventos de blanqueamiento del coral fueron muy probablemente inducidos por un fenómeno a escala global. Es probable que el calentamiento global antropogénico haya contribuido al blanqueamiento extensivo del coral que ocurrió simultáneamente a lo largo de las regiones coralinas del mundo. La extensión geográfica, la frecuencia creciente y la severidad regional de los eventos de blanqueamiento masivos son un resultado aparente del aumento de las temperaturas marinas de base, combinadas con eventos regionales específicos como El Niño y La Niña. Las repercusiones del blanqueamiento masivo de 1998 y de las mortalidades están lejos de alcance. Las poblaciones humanas dependientes de los servicios de los arrecifes enfrentarán pérdidas de biodiversidad marina, pesquerías y protección de la línea costera. Los eventos de blanqueamiento del coral pueden ser más frecuentes y severos con el continuo calentamiento del clima, exponiendo a los arrecifes de coral a un ambiente cada vez más hostil. Esta amenaza global a los corales combina los efectos de factores antropogénicos más localizados que ya están poniendo en riesgo a los arrecifes. Se requiere de una atención significativa al monitoreo de los ecosistemas de arrecifes, de una investigación de los efectos esperados y observados del cambio climático global, y medidas para eliminar las emisiones de gases causantes del efecto invernadero. Aún aquellos arrecifes con protección legal bien aplicada en forma de santuarios marinos, o manejados para un uso adecuado, se encuentran amenazados por el cambio climático global. At the close of 1998, marine scientists urged officials of the U.S. Department of State to investigate the link between recent mass coral bleaching events and global climate change. After consultation with internationally recognized experts in the fields of marine biology and climatology, the State Department released a report in March of 1999 on coral bleaching and global climate change which concluded that the geographic extent, increasing frequency, and regional severity of mass coral bleaching events in 1997–1998 were an apparent consequence of a steadily rising baseline of marine temperatures associated with regionally specific El Niño and La Niña events ( Pomerance et al. 1999). In response, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force passed a resolution stating that conservation goals can no longer be achieved without taking global climate change into account ( http://www.coralreef.gov). We review the scientific information that led to the conclusion of the State Department report and highlight the actions taken within the policy community since the report was released. The current state of coral reefs at the beginning of the twenty-first century suggests that, without immediate action, the massive world decline of coral reefs will continue. Coral reefs are one of the most productive ecosystems on Earth (although there are limits to the amount of harvestable productivity; Grigg et al. 1984 and the most complex, species-rich, and productive marine ecosystem ( Stafford-Deitsch 1993; Sebens 1994; Bryant et al. 1998). Much of this productivity is derived from the substantial concentration of marine biodiversity in coral reefs. One estimate ( Reaka-Kudla 1996) proposes that coral reefs have about 1 million species, of which only 10% are described. Large fish typically school along the reef, whereas small ones pack into the extensive network of crevices within the reef. The benefits of coral reef services are both immediate and long-term, making them a priority for conservation and a major resource for sustainable development ( Table 1). When corals are physiologically stressed, the critical balance that maintains their symbiotic relationship with the algae (zooxanthellae) that inhabit their cells is lost. The coral may lose some or most of their algae, a major source of nutrition and color ( Muscatine 1973; Trench 1979; Jaap 1985; Kleppel et al. 1989). Tissue growth, skeletal accretion ( Goreau & Macfarlane 1990; Leder et al. 1991), and sexual reproduction are usually suspended ( Szmant & Grassman 1990), and the corals, now devoid of color, are referred to as “bleached.” Corals survive if the stress is brief but die if it is prolonged ( Glynn 1996; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Sublethal stress may make corals more susceptible to infection by a variety of opportunistic pathogens, and disease outbreaks (epizootics) may result in significant coral mortality ( Kusamano et al. 1996; Hayes & Goreau 1998). Once mortality occurs, the reef's bare skeleton is colonized by rapidly growing seaweeds and other opportunistic organisms ( Hayes & Goreau 1998). As long as the physical structure of coral reefs is maintained, they offer protection to a variety of marine life. Provided that favorable conditions are sustained and there is a supply of coral larvae, reef-building corals may recolonize bare surfaces and renew the reef-building process. Where large populations of parrot fish, sea urchins, worms, and other invertebrates erode the dead reef skeleton, however, the reef breaks down and becomes vulnerable to destruction by storm surges ( Hutchings 1986; Glynn 1988; Eakin 1996; Reaka-Kudla et al. 1996; Wilkinson et al. 1999 ). Once the reef is reduced to rubble, fish and other marine organisms cannot be supported. Local human populations are thus placed at risk as fisheries stocks become greatly diminished, shoreline erosion increases, and the tourist industry declines ( Roberts et al. 1998; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Coral bleaching is most often associated with a significant rise in sea surface temperatures ( Cook et al. 1990; Gates 1990; Glynn 1991; Goreau et al. 1993; Glynn 1996; Brown 1997; Winter et al. 1999). On-site observations and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite-derived sea surface temperature records from North Atlantic and Caribbean reef locations show a significant correlation between all large-scale bleaching events and high sea surface temperatures ( Goreau et al. 1993; Gleason & Strong 1995; Strong et al. 1998). The term bleaching HotSpot is now used to describe anomalies in sea surface temperature in coral reef regions that approximate or exceed by at least 1.0° C the sea surface temperature expected climatologically during the warmest months of the year ( Goreau & Hayes 1994; Strong et al. 1997 ). (The spelling of the word HotSpot originated with a 1998 paper published in Reef Encounters and has been adopted by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in an attempt to differentiate coral bleaching HotSpots from biodiversity and other types of hotspots.) Sea surface temperatures of even 1° C above normal summer maxima and lasting for at least 2–3 days appear to provide a potentially useful predictor of subsequent bleaching ( Goreau & Hayes 1994; Strong et al. 1998). Although there are differences in response among species and populations, most corals are likely to bleach but survive and recover if temperature anomalies persist for <1 month. The chronic stress of high temperatures or frequent high temperature episodes, however, can cause irreversible damage ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Coral reefs are bathed in unusually warm waters through at least two nonexclusive conditions: doldrum-like conditions and current transport. Weather patterns typified by clear skies and slight or still wind or waves result in little or no mixing of warm and cold waters, enabling solar radiation ( particularly when the sun is overhead) to warm surface and shallow waters. Ocean currents transport “pools” of warm water. Sometimes these pools are delivered to reef regions, where they can linger for months before moving or dissipating ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Stress-related bleaching can also be induced if corals are subjected to reductions or increases in salinity, intense solar radiation (especially ultraviolet wavelengths; Jokiel 1980; Fisk & Done 1985; Oliver 1985; Lesser et al. 1990; Gleason & Wellington 1993, exposure to air by low tides or low sea level, sedimentation, or chemical pollutants such as copper, herbicides, and oil (reviewed by Glynn 1996; Brown 1997 . These conditions may be an indirect consequence of extremes in weather (such as hurricanes and typhoons) or climate (such as El Niño) that are proceeded by or occur concurrently with elevated sea surface temperatures. Consequently, multiple factors act in concert to cause bleaching, but high solar irradiance, particularly of ultraviolet wavelengths, is considered especially stressful to corals when coupled with elevated sea surface temperatures ( Hoegh-Guldberg & Smith 1989; Gleason & Wellington 1993; Glynn 1996; Lesser 1996). Nearly 80 years ago, Alfred Mayer described coral bleaching as a natural event, when he observed small scale bleaching in overheated tide pools ( Goreau & Hayes 1994). Because the events were rare, localized, and corals typically recovered, bleaching events caused little concern ( Hayes & Bush 1990; Hayes & Goreau 1991; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). In the early to mid 1980s, however, coral reefs around the world began to experience large scale bleaching ( Goenaga & Canals 1990; Goreau 1990; Williams & Bunkley-Williams 1990; Glynn 1991; Hayes & Goreau 1991; Goreau 1992; Glynn 1996; Brown 1997 . Since then, such events have taken place almost every year (the exception being the 2 years following the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo), at one time or another affecting every reef region in the world, across all depths of the tropical reef ( Hayes & Goreau 1991; Wilkinson 1998; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). Corals have died throughout entire reef systems following mass bleaching events ( Wilkinson 1998; Brown & Suharsano 1990). The coral bleaching events of 1987 and 1990 were sufficiently alarming (each unprecedented in scale and severity) that hearings were held before the U.S. Senate (27 November 1987, U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations; 11 October 1990, U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation). Witnesses confirmed that the frequency and extent of coral bleaching represented a severe threat to coral survival and reef preservation ( Hayes et al. 1990). Furthermore, they affirmed there was sufficiently strong evidence to suggest that tropical corals may be responding to trends in global warming ( Goreau 1990; Hayes et al. 1990). Although highly variable spatially, the coral bleaching of 1998 was the most geographically extensive and severe on record ( Strong et al. 1998; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). Coral bleaching was reported in at least 60 countries and states in the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, and the Caribbean. Only the central Pacific seemed to have been unaffected. Unlike most previous bleaching events, which were most severe at depths <15 m, the effect of the 1998 event extended to depths as great as 50 m in some locations ( Wilkinson 1998; Wilkinson et al. 1999). In these areas, virtually all species of hard and soft corals, as well as many other zooxanthelate invertebrates (e.g., giant clams; Gomez & Mingoa-Licuanan 1998, suffered bleaching ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). The severity of the coral bleaching ranged from catastrophic, mass mortality of at least 80% of a reef system, to negligible where only small patches of reef bleached and then recovered ( Wilkinson 1998; Wilkinson et al. 1999). This variation likely reflects differences in species and population-specific responses ( Rowan et al. 1997 ), location of the reef (e.g., depth), strength of the stressor(s), as well as the duration and frequency of the stress ( Wilkinson 1998; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). Preliminary assessments indicate that the Indian Ocean was the most severely affected region, with devastating coral mortality ( Sheppard 1999). Greater than 70% mortality was observed off the coasts of such regions as Kenya, the Maldives, the Andamans, and the Lakshadweep Islands ( Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). About 78% of the corals have been reported dead in the Seychelles Marine Park System and the Mafia Marine Park ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). A complete assessment of the ramifications of the 1998 mass bleaching event will require years. Undoubtedly, some corals will recover, and perhaps they and their zooxanthellae may become more stress-tolerant ( Buddemeier & Fautin 1993; Ware et al. 1996), although there is little evidence that this occurs ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). Rather, corals may have endured such significant physiological and metabolic stress that they will be more susceptible to the effects of future stress events ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Thus, episodes of coral morbidity and mortality may follow the primary insults of bleaching. In some regions, local and regional stressors such as increased sedimentation and pollution, abnormally low tides, and freshwater inundation undoubtedly contributed to the coral bleaching events of 1998 ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Nevertheless, anomalously high sea surface temperatures closely preceded and/or correlated with reports of mass coral bleaching worldwide ( Strong et al. 1998; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). Combined land-air and sea surface temperatures made 1998 the warmest year of the century ( National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1998a), with both land and sea surfaces experiencing record high temperature anomalies ( National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1999; Fig. 1). Tropical sea surface temperatures were the highest on record, and the bleaching HotSpots of the world's tropical oceans were more extensive in the first 6 months of 1998 than in any previous year ( Strong et al. 1998). Annual global surface mean temperature anomalies. Yearly amount of temperature fluctuation above and below the annual global surface mean temperature (at 0° C) from 1880 to 1998 ( National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1998a). There is considerable support for the hypothesis that anomalously high sea surface temperatures have caused the recent episodes of mass coral bleaching and mortality. However, the specific mechanism(s) driving the rise in sea surface temperatures remains uncertain and thus controversial ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Three predominant theories, representing potentially interacting scenarios, have been explored: (1) stochasticity and chaos, (2) El Niño and other variations in climate, and (3) global warming ( Table 2). Global surface mean temperature for the top 10 El Niño events of the twentieth century. Although a statistical analysis has not yet been performed, the chance that all of the 1998 bleaching events occurred as a result of independent local causes or independent weather events seems highly improbable. In many parts of the world, El Niño and La Niña, in combination with related variations in climate, appear to have been a significant factor in severe coral bleaching events ( Coffroth et al. 1990; Wilkinson 2000). There were nearly comparable amounts of bleaching under both El Niño and La Niña conditions throughout the world, signifying two important conclusions: (1) bleaching may be region-specific, and (2) it is more the degree of change that influences the severity of the effects than it is the nature of the change ( Wilkinson 2000). According to Wilkinson (2000), major El Niño–associated bleaching events occurred as follows: in 1997, far-eastern Pacific between May and December, Colombia starting in May, Mexico from July to September, Panama in September, and Galapagos in December, and in 1998 Indian Ocean between March and June, Kenya and Tanzania from March to May, Maldives and Sri Lanka from April to May, Western Australian reefs from April to June, India from May to June, Oman and Socotra in May, Southeast Asia between January and May, Indonesia from January to April, Cambodia, Thailand, and East Malaysia from April to May, Eastern Australia and Great Barrier Reef in January and February, and southern Atlantic Ocean off Brazil in April. Major La Niña–associated bleaching events occurred as follows in 1998: Southeast and East Asia from July to October, Philippines from July to September, Vietnam in July, Japan and Taiwan from July to September, Singapore and Sumatra, Indonesia in July, Arabian Gulf and Red Sea from August to October, Bahrain, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates in August and September, Eritrea and Saudi Arabia (Red Sea) in August and September, throughout the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean from August to October, Florida from July to September, Bahamas, Bonaire, Bermuda in August and September, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Caymans, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica, and Mexico in September, far-west Pacific from September to November, Federated States of Micronesia in September, and Palau in September to November. El Niño–La Niña events, however, cannot account for the extreme warmth of 1998: connections between these regional phenomena and coral bleaching are not apparent for all Pacific locations or for the Indian Ocean and Arabian Gulf ( Strong et al. 1998; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Rather, these regional events could be part of larger climate patterns that influenced temperatures across the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). The mass coral bleaching and mortality events of 1998 may not be accounted for by localized stressors or natural variability alone. Rather, the effect of these factors was likely accentuated by an underlying global cause. It is probable that anthropogenic global warming has contributed to the extensive coral bleaching that has occurred simultaneously throughout the disparate reef regions of the world. Thus, the geographic extent, increasing frequency, and regional severity of mass bleaching events are an apparent result of decades of rising marine temperatures and strong regional climate events ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Goreau et al. 2000). Recovery of coral reefs is dependent on numerous factors, including the local severity and duration of thermal stress; species-specific growth rates and sensitivity to stress; infections due to disease; fragmentation of remaining coral reefs; recruitment of coral larvae in the area; and timing and severity of additional stresses ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Coral reefs damaged by acute, local stresses such as ship groundings, hurricanes, or pest outbreaks can recover in a few decades as long as surrounding reefs are healthy. But recovery to previous levels of coral cover and community structure following chronic, widespread stresses could take decades to possibly hundreds of years ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1998; Wilkinson et al. 1999; Wilkinson 2000). Some corals have survived the mass extinctions brought on by natural climatic variabilities in the past (e.g., 75,000 years ago). Because of the rapid rate at which significant climatic changes could now proceed, however, the ability of most corals to acclimatize, migrate, or adapt is uncertain and unsubstantiated (see discussion by Hoegh-Guldberg 1999. Where coral mortality was catastrophic to severe in 1998, there will be fewer corals of the affected species reproducing in coming years and hence a much reduced source of new coral larvae ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Even if there were an adequate supply of coral larvae, reef recovery will be hindered around populated shores by pollution (sewage, soil erosion, fertilizers), over-fishing, and physical damage. In the Carribbean, recent increases in the incidence of coral disease have further reduced the numbers of some important reef-building corals, such as the Acropora species ( Bryant et al. 1998). Significant changes in community composition often occur following mass mortality events. In some cases, hardier species replace less stress-tolerant species (“strategy shift”; Done 1999 because of differential mortality (e.g., Hoegh-Guldberg & Salvat 1995. Under more extreme scenarios, corals are replaced by other groups of organisms, such as seaweeds (“phase shift”; Hughes 1994; Shulman & Robertson 1996; Done 1999. There have been strong regional differences in warming rates and average sea surface temperatures in the Southern Hemisphere sites have been showing either no increase or cooling ( National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1999; Wilkinson et al. 1999). Nevertheless, global climate change poses an increasing threat to coral reefs regardless of its contribution to date. An increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can reduce the ability of corals to form limestone skeletons, slowing their growth and making them fragile ( Gattuso et al. 1999; Kleypas et al. 1999). Global mean sea surface temperatures are projected to increase approximately 1–2° C by the year 2100 ( National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1998b), and if the frequency of high-temperature episodes increases as mean temperatures gradually rise, corals will experience more frequent and widespread disturbances ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1998; Done 1999). Bleaching HotSpots would become even more widespread and protracted ( Goreau & Hayes 1994; Strong et al. 1998). Also, these thermal effects are projected to coincide with rising sea levels, more frequent tropical storms and El Niños, and, consequently, greater coastal erosion, turbidity, and sedimentation in many reef locations (Intergovernmental Panel on Change Control 1998). Stressed by any of these factors, the ability of coral reefs to withstand high waves and recover from breakage or bleaching events may be significantly reduced ( Wilkinson 2000 ). Hoegh-Guldberg (1999) examined four predictive climate-change models to project the increasing frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events. All four models confirmed the same trends: (1) the frequency of bleaching will rise rapidly, more slowly in the central Pacific and most quickly in the Caribbean; (2) the severity of bleaching will increase at a rate proportional to the probability that sea surface temperatures will exceed thermal maxima; and (3) within 3–5 years most regions will experience mass bleaching annually. The essential conclusions are undeniable: if sea temperatures continue to rise and corals are unable to acclimatize or adapt rapidly, corals will experience mass bleaching with increasing frequency and severity. If tropical oceans annually experience temperatures that greatly exceed those of 1998, the models project that by approximately 2050 coral reefs as we now know them will not be able to survive. The repercussions of the 1998 mass coral bleaching and mortality events will be far-reaching. Even under ideal conditions, significant changes in community structure will occur. In the meantime, human populations that depend on reef services face losses of marine biodiversity, fisheries, and shoreline protection. A preliminary attempt to estimate the damage of the 1998 coral bleaching event in the Indian Ocean, based on best- and worst-case recovery scenarios, put losses in the range of $706 to $8190 million ( U.S.) ( Wilkinson et al. 1999). Trends of the past century and projection models suggest that coral bleaching events may become more frequent and severe as the climate continues to warm, exposing coral reefs to an increasingly hostile environment. Furthermore, these models imply that any strategy to maintain coral reefs must include reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. All reefs, even those granted well-enforced legal protection as marine sanctuaries or managed for sustainable use, are threatened by global climate change. As with all environmental conservation and ecosystem management challenges, it is critical to establish better baseline data and develop well-coordinated, interdisciplinary programs to address gaps in current knowledge. For example, we need information on the long-term effects of coral bleaching and mortality on ecological, social, and economic systems; on the physiological tolerance and adaptation capacity of corals to acute and chronic temperature stress; and on the links between coral bleaching and disease. This information must then be translated effectively into public policy and communicated to funding agencies and the public. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) all provide avenues through which countries can develop policies and initiate funding mechanisms to address the effects of climate change on biological diversity. In October 1999 the CBD's Subsidiary Body on Science, Technology, and Technical Advice (SBSTTA) held an experts consultation on coral bleaching. They called upon the conventions to give urgent attention to the effects of climate change on coral reef systems by jointly undertaking a variety of actions ( http://www.biodiv.org/sbstta5/docs.html; Table 3). In the same month, the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI ) endorsed the recommendations made to the CBD and issued resolutions directly to the CBD and FCCC ( http://www.environnement.gouv.fr/icri). In late February 2000 the fifth meeting of CBD's SBSTTA considered the findings of the experts' consultation on coral bleaching. More than 100 governments concluded that there is significant evidence that global climate change is a primary cause of the 1997–1998 mass coral bleaching events and urged the CBD's Conference of Parties (COP) to endorse the findings of the expert consultation at its fifth meeting (May 2000, Nairobi; http://www.biodiv.org), which the COP did. Although the activities of these international bodies are encouraging and could provide much of the political and financial response needed to address the causes and consequences of coral bleaching, the process through which they operate is typically slow. Coral reefs need immediate conservation attention, and many of the actions most important for their survival are already recognized and best administered at local to regional scales. We need to increase the urgency and effectiveness with which we manage the stressors that already place reefs as risk. Programs to reduce pollution, sedimentation, anchor and net damage, and overfishing, and to establish marine protected areas will give corals their best chance to respond to climate change naturally. If we do not heed the warning of climate-induced ecosystem collapse provided by mass coral bleaching events, similar catastrophies will follow throughout marine, freshwater, and terrestrial systems. We are especially grateful to A. Strong, R. Hayes, T. Goreau, and J. Cervino for bringing the breadth and gravity of these events to our attention and providing extensive assistance in document preparation. We thank D. J. Baker for the support of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which contributed much of the information critical to this paper, and A. Strong and M. Toscano for providing figures from the NOAA. The following individuals reviewed early drafts of the document, greatly assisting in its development: B. Best, A. Bruckner, M. Eakin, J. Ogden, M. Oppenheimer, A. Paterson, T. Socci, K. Trenberth, and C. Wilkinson. The final draft was further improved with feedback from J. Carlton, C. Wilkinson, E. Main, and two anonymous reviewers. We thank our colleagues at the Department of State for contributing time, energy, and technical expertise." @default.
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W2098463721 title "Coral Bleaching and Global Climate Change: Scientific Findings and Policy Recommendations" @default.
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