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• W2113463803 abstract "Heart failure (HF) in the United States is well recognized as a major public health problem, with over 900,000 hospital admissions annually in the United States, and greater than 250,000 deaths per year. The great majority of heart failure occurs in adults. In children, the scope of the problem is less well defined, but recent data from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry suggest an annual incidence of 1.13 cases of cardiomyopathy per 100,000 children.1Lipshultz S.E. Sleeper L.A. Towbin J.A. et al.The incidence of pediatric cardiomyopathy in two regions of the United States.N Engl J Med. 2003; 348: 1647-1655Crossref PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar While some of this represents asymptomatic disease, the burden of disease overall is nonetheless quite high. In the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry, the majority of children with cardiomyopathy also had HF, with mortality rates of 13.6% at 2 years in dilated forms of cardiomyopathy. The etiology of heart failure differs greatly between children and adults. Children in the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry had a recognizable syndrome or genetic diagnosis in 27% of cases, with an additional 5% of cases due to myocarditis. Furthermore, a large percentage of children with end-stage HF (between 25% and 75%, depending upon the age group) have an underlying diagnosis of congenital heart disease.2Boucek M.M. Edwards L.B. Keck B.M. et al.The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation Sixth Official Pediatric Report–2003.J Heart Lung Transplant. 2003; 22: 636-652Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar In contrast to adult patients, ischemic heart disease is rare in children. There is a large, and rapidly growing literature addressing HF treatment for adult patients, with a much smaller literature concerning HF therapy in children. Excellent guidelines for adult patients have recently been published, but given the significant differences between adult and pediatric patients with HF, there is little reason to believe that these guidelines are directly applicable to children.3Heart Failure Society of America (HFSA) practice guidelinesHFSA guidelines for management of patients with heart failure caused by left ventricular systolic dysfunction-pharmacological approaches.J Card Fail. 1999; 5: 357-382Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar Accordingly, in this document we have attempted to summarize the relevant literature and synthesize management guidelines for children with HF. The document that follows has been prepared in a consensus fashion, with input from pediatric cardiologists at multiple sites throughout the United States and Canada. Each recommendation in this document is ranked with regard to the level of supporting evidence: •Level A recommendations are based upon multiple randomized clinical trials.•Level B are based upon a single randomized trial or multiple non-randomized trials.•Level C are based primarily upon expert consensus opinion. The level of evidence upon which a recommendation is based, differs from the strength of the recommendation. A given recommendation may be based upon randomized trials yet still be controversial. Other forms of therapy, which are based solely upon expert consensus, may be strongly recommended. Recommendations in this document adhere to the format of guidelines previously published by the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA). •Class I: Conditions for which there is general agreement that a given therapy is useful and effective.•Class II: Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence or a divergence of opinion concerning the usefulness and effectiveness of a therapy. •Class IIa: Weight of evidence/opinion favors usefulness/effectiveness.•Class IIb: Weight of evidence/opinion is less in favor of usefulness/effectiveness.•Class III: Conditions for which there is general agreement that a therapy is not useful and (in some cases) may be harmful. Heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome, with multiple etiologies and diverse clinical manifestations. Many definitions have been offered, but we prefer that set forth by Arnold Katz, which not only describes the clinical aspects of HF, but also reflects a growing understanding of the cellular processes which accompany this condition:4Katz A.M. Heart Failure Pathophysiology, Molecular Biology and Clinical Management. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa2000Google Scholar “…heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which heart disease reduces cardiac output, increases venous pressures, and is accompanied by molecular abnormalities that cause progressive deterioration of the failing heart and premature myocardial cell death.” It is important to note that at present, this definition is not clinically applicable as a diagnostic roadmap. In fact, there is no gold standard diagnostic approach to HF. Rather, the recognition of HF depends on a thorough characterization of the patient from a clinical, hemodynamic, and – increasingly – neurohumoral perspective. In specific cases, the weight of the diagnosis may stem from elements of the medical history, while in other cases, echocardiography or cardiac catheterization may provide essential data. Perturbations in circulating hormones such as the natriuretic peptides are coming to play a substantial role in the diagnosis of HF in the adult population, but are less widely used for this purpose in children. Additionally, there is often ambiguity concerning the use of the term HF for children with uncorrected structural lesions resulting in left to right shunting with preserved systolic function. In this manuscript, we do not address the clinical issues posed by such patients, which are very different from HF associated with myocyte dysfunction. The New York Heart Association (NYHA) classification is widely used for grading HF in adult patients because of its simplicity in providing a practical assessment of functional limitation. It is an ordinal scale defined by the degree to which symptoms of HF limit a patient’s physical activity. However, the applicability to younger children and infants is limited. The Ross Classification was developed for grading HF in infants and younger children (Table 1).5Ross R.D. Daniels S.R. Schwartz D.C. Hannon D.W. Shukla R. Kaplan S. Plasma norepinephrine levels in infants and children with congestive heart failure.Am J Cardiol. 1987; 59: 911-914Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar In 1994 the Ross Classification was adopted by the Canadian Cardiovascular Society as their official system for grading HF in children,6Johnstone D.E. Abdulla A. Arnold J.M. et al.Diagnosis and management of heart failure. Canadian Cardiovascular Society.Can J Cardiol. 1994; 10 (35–54): 613-631PubMed Google Scholar and the system is currently used in the national Cardiomyopathy Registry and in a multicenter study of carvedilol. A direct correlation between the Ross class and plasma norepinephrine concentrations5Ross R.D. Daniels S.R. Schwartz D.C. Hannon D.W. Shukla R. Kaplan S. Plasma norepinephrine levels in infants and children with congestive heart failure.Am J Cardiol. 1987; 59: 911-914Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar and an inverse relationship between the Ross class and β-receptor density support the validity of the Ross classification system.7Wu J.R. Chang H.R. Huang T.Y. Chiang C.H. Chen S.S. Reduction in lymphocyte beta-adrenergic receptor density in infants and children with heart failure secondary to congenital heart disease.Am J Cardiol. 1996; 77: 170-174Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (26) Google ScholarTable 1Ross ClassificationClassInterpretationIAsymptomaticIIMild tachypnea or diaphoresis with feeding in infants. Dyspnea on exertion in older children.IIIMarked tachypnea or diaphoresis with feeding in infants. Prolonged feeding times with growth failure due to heart failure. In older children, marked dyspnea on exertion.IVSymptoms such as tachypnea, retractions, grunting, or diaphoresis at rest. Open table in a new tab Several other scoring systems have been proposed for grading HF in children. One such system developed for infants has a 12-point scale based on variables assigned by 4 pediatric cardiologists blinded to the patient’s diagnosis.8Ross R.D. Bollinger R.O. Pinsky W.W. Grading the severity of congestive heart failure in infants.Pediatr Cardiol. 1992; 13: 72-75Crossref PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar These variables were: quantity and duration of feeding, respiratory rate and pattern, heart rate, peripheral perfusion, presence of a diastolic filling sound, and degree of hepatomegaly. Another recently proposed system is the New York University Pediatric Heart Failure Index.9Connolly D. Rutkowski M. Auslender M. Artman M. The New York University Pediatric Heart Failure Index a new method of quantifying chronic heart failure severity in children.J Pediatr. 2001; 138: 644-648Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar In this system, a total score from 0 to 30 is obtained by adding together points based on physiologic indicators and the patient’s specific medical regimen. Items scored are signs and symptoms, HF medications, and ventricular pathophysiology. None of these systems have been validated in large numbers of children nor tested against biological markers of HF or exercise capabilities.10Ross R.D. Grading the graders of congestive heart failure in children.J Pediatr. 2001; 138: 618-620Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar Ohuchi and colleagues have recently published a detailed analysis of the relationship between changes in neurohumoral indices and clinical status of children and young adults with congenital heart disease.11Ohuchi H. Takasugi H. Ohashi H. et al.Stratification of pediatric heart failure on the basis of neurohormonal and cardiac autonomic nervous activities in patients with congenital heart disease.Circulation. 2003; 108: 2368-2376Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar Both the NYHA and Ross HF scales concentrate on current symptomatology. Neither of these scales discriminates well among patients with early stages of disease, nor between stable and decompensated stages of illness. Overt HF symptoms occur late in the disease process, indicating a failure of compensatory mechanisms. The ACC/AHA 2002 HF guidelines therefore advocate a HF classification schema that addresses these deficiencies and complements the NYHA scale.12Hunt S.A. Baker D.W. Chin M.H. et al.ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to revise the 1995 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure).J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 2101-2113Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (909) Google Scholar The ACC/AHA staging identifies patients at risk for HF who require early intervention to prolong the symptom-free state; it also delineates patients who require aggressive management of symptoms once they become manifest. The system advocated by the ACC/AHA for HF staging in adults can be readily applied to infants and children as well, with minor modifications as shown in Table 2.12Hunt S.A. Baker D.W. Chin M.H. et al.ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to revise the 1995 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure).J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 2101-2113Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (909) Google Scholar The writing committee of this document has adopted this nomenclature due to the advantages enumerated above.Table 2Proposed Heart Failure Staging for Infants and Children*HF, heart failure; LV, left ventricular.StageInterpretationAPatients with increased risk of developing HF, but who have normal cardiac function and no evidence of cardiac chamber volume overload. Examples: previous exposure to cardiotoxic agents, family history of heritable cardiomyopathy, univentricular heart, congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries.BPatients with abnormal cardiac morphology or cardiac function, with no symptoms of HF, past or present. Examples: aortic insufficiency with LV enlargement, history of anthracycline with decreased LV systolic function.CPatients with underlying structural or functional heart disease, and past or current symptoms of HF.DPatients with end-stage HF requiring continous infusion of intropic agents, mechanical circulatory support, cardiac transplantation or hospice care.* HF, heart failure; LV, left ventricular. Open table in a new tab" @default.
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• W2113463803 date "2004-12-01" @default.
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• W2113463803 title "International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Practice guidelines for management of heart failure in children" @default.
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