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• W2114491846 abstract "Introduction Industrialized countries share basic trends, including increasing female participation in the labor force, declining marriage and birth rates, and increasing numbers of smaller households. Birth rates have been declining for a long time, and in most industrialized countries have now fallen well below the replacement level. These declines in birth rate have led to smaller household and family sizes in these countries. Many factors contribute to these low birth rates: the economic cost of raising children; the opportunity cost, to women, of marriage and childbirth; and non-economic costs related to child rearing such as time consumed and having to give up career development. Accordingly, families and working parents are supported by a variety of policy instruments, including cash benefits, childcare services, entitlements to child-related leave, and flexible working time arrangements. These policy instruments have effects on birth rate levels in developed countries. Economic growth and increasing globalization do not necessarily reduce poverty, nor do they necessarily reduce income disparities. Even in developed countries, large numbers of people fall into poverty. There is a growing recognition that social security systems need to take into account, in a more explicit manner, a life-cycle perspective to adjust to such changes as higher female participation in the labor force, smaller families, longer periods spent in education, the prevalence of non-traditional work patterns, increases in the health of elderly people in their later years, phased retirement, and so on. Therefore, discussions on reform should take into account such factors as a) intergenerational equity; b) equitable treatment of people with different occupations and marital status; and c) the consistency of the social security system with regard to work incentives, as well as the sustainability of the system. The Japanese population is ageing rapidly, and the birth rate has been very low since the 1990s. This low birth rate, coupled with long life expectancy, profoundly influences society and makes reform of the social security system in Japan both more difficult and more pressing. This paper examines some aspects of the causes of the low birth rate and its consequences on the social security system in Japan. We argue in favor of several reform options in Japan and pay special attention to the French experience." @default.
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• W2114491846 date "2008-01-01" @default.
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• W2114491846 title "The Effects of the Low Birth Rate on the Japanese Social Security System" @default.
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