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• W2143488462 abstract "The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the main target site of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Diagnosis is based on endoscopic and histological findings. Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a Gram-negative spiral bacterium linked to gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, gastric mucosa–associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and adenocarcinoma and is frequently observed on endoscopy in patients who have undergone transplantation. The role, if any, played by HP infection in the development of acute GVHD is unknown. We conducted a retrospective study between January 1, 1990, and December 31, 2008, of 338 upper GI endoscopies (gastroscopies) performed on patients who underwent allogeneic stem cell transplantation with clinical suspicion of GVHD (198 patients). Acute and chronic GVHD were confirmed from histological features in 97 patients (51.3%) and 68 patients (36%), respectively. HP infection was detected in 69 patients (35%) and had a negative modulating effect on the development of acute GVHD (relative risk [RR], 0.60; 95% confidence interval, 0.46-0.79; P = .001) and chronic GVHD (RR, 0.75; 95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.92; P = .016). Furthermore, the presence of HP was inversely correlated with the histological severity of GVHD (P = .003). Our findings suggest that infection with HP may have a negative modulating effect on GVHD. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the main target site of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Diagnosis is based on endoscopic and histological findings. Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a Gram-negative spiral bacterium linked to gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, gastric mucosa–associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and adenocarcinoma and is frequently observed on endoscopy in patients who have undergone transplantation. The role, if any, played by HP infection in the development of acute GVHD is unknown. We conducted a retrospective study between January 1, 1990, and December 31, 2008, of 338 upper GI endoscopies (gastroscopies) performed on patients who underwent allogeneic stem cell transplantation with clinical suspicion of GVHD (198 patients). Acute and chronic GVHD were confirmed from histological features in 97 patients (51.3%) and 68 patients (36%), respectively. HP infection was detected in 69 patients (35%) and had a negative modulating effect on the development of acute GVHD (relative risk [RR], 0.60; 95% confidence interval, 0.46-0.79; P = .001) and chronic GVHD (RR, 0.75; 95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.92; P = .016). Furthermore, the presence of HP was inversely correlated with the histological severity of GVHD (P = .003). Our findings suggest that infection with HP may have a negative modulating effect on GVHD. IntroductionAllogeneic stem cell transplantation is the best therapeutic option for many patients with hematologic malignancies, although it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, due mostly to graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) [1Welniak L.A. Blazar B.R. Murphy W.J. Immunobiology of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.Annu Rev Immunol. 2007; 25: 139-170Crossref PubMed Scopus (385) Google Scholar]. Acute gastrointestinal (GI) GVHD presents as nausea, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hemorrhage, and ileus, and carries a >80% risk of mortality in severe forms [2Leisenring W.M. Martin P.J. Petersdorf E.W. et al.An acute graft-versus-host disease activity index to predict survival after hematopoietic cell transplantation with myeloablative conditioning regimens.Blood. 2006; 108: 749-755Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar]. The GI tract is also a target organ for chronic GVHD, clinical manifestations of which include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, esophageal stricture or concentric rings, and pancreatic exocrine insufficiency [3Filipovich A.H. Weisdorf D. Pavletic S. et al.National Institutes of Health consensus development project on criteria for clinical trials in chronic graft-versus-host disease, I: Diagnosis and Staging Working Group report.Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2005; 11: 945-956Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2764) Google Scholar].Due to the frequency of GI symptoms during the first 100 days after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), more than 50% of patients are referred for an endoscopic evaluation of the enteric tract. Differential diagnosis of GVHD and other conditions, such as toxicity from chemotherapy or radiotherapy, drug-related adverse effects, and bacterial, viral, parasitic, or fungal infections, should be performed [4Cox G.J. Matsui S.M. Lo R.S. et al.Etiology and outcome of diarrhea after marrow transplantation: a prospective study.Gastroenterology. 1994; 107: 1398-1407Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 5Ross W.A. Ghosh S. Dekovich A.A. et al.Endoscopic biopsy diagnosis of acute gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease: rectosigmoid biopsies are more sensitive than upper gastrointestinal biopsies.Am J Gastroenterol. 2008; 103: 982-989Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar]. Endoscopic evidence of GVHD in the stomach and duodenum may range from normal mucosa to nonspecific signs such as edema, erythema, frank ulcers, and erosion of the mucosa [6Fallows G. Rubinger M. Bernstein C.N. Does gastroenterology consultation change management of patients receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation?.Bone Marrow Transplant. 2001; 28: 289-294Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar].Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a Gram-negative bacillus that has been linked to several digestive disorders, including gastric cancer and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. HP infection has coexisted with the human species for more than 50,000 years [7Falush D. Wirth T. Linz B. et al.Traces of human migrations in Helicobacter pylori populations.Science. 2003; 299: 1582-1585Crossref PubMed Scopus (745) Google Scholar, 8Linz B. Balloux F. Moodley Y. et al.An African origin for the intimate association between humans and Helicobacter pylori.Nature. 2007; 445: 915-918Crossref PubMed Scopus (687) Google Scholar]. The infection is acquired during childhood and, if untreated, remains present in the body throughout the lifespan, although it causes symptoms in only a subset of patients [9Kuipers E.J. Pena A.S. van Kamp G. et al.Seroconversion for Helicobacter pylori.Lancet. 1993; 342: 328-331Abstract PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar, 10Malaty H.M. El Kasabany A. Graham D.Y. et al.Age at acquisition of Helicobacter pylori infection: a follow-up study from infancy to adulthood.Lancet. 2002; 359: 931-935Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (320) Google Scholar]. The prevalence of HP infection is related to age, socioeconomic class, and country of origin, varying between 20% and 30% in developed countries and between 60% and 80% in some ethnic groups and developing countries [11Go M.F. Review: natural history and epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection.Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2002; 16: 3-15Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Humans are the primary reservoir, and several transmission methods have been proposed, including oral-oral, waterborne transmission, fecal-oral, and gastro-oral [12Graham D.Y. Sung J. Helicobacter pylori.in: Feldman M. Friedman L.S. Brandt L.J. 8th ed. Sleisenger & Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Philadelphia2006: 1049-1066Google Scholar]. Chronic HP infection can produce endoscopic findings similar to those seen in stage I and II GVHD, and histological analysis may reveal apoptotic bodies [13Jones N.L. Shannon P.T. Cutz E. et al.Increase in proliferation and apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells early in the natural history of Helicobacter pylori infection.Am J Pathol. 1997; 151: 1695-1703PubMed Google Scholar, 14Moss S.F. Calam J. Agarwal B. et al.Induction of gastric epithelial apoptosis by Helicobacter pylori.Gut. 1996; 38: 498-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar]. Mucosal biopsy and histological examination of specimens for the presence of HP is the diagnostic method of choice for patients in whom an endoscopy is clinically indicated, with a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 66%, and positive and negative predictive values of 84% and 100%, respectively [15Cutler A.F. Havstad S. Ma C.K. et al.Accuracy of invasive and noninvasive tests to diagnose Helicobacter pylori infection.Gastroenterology. 1995; 109: 136-141Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar].We conducted a retrospective study in patients with GI symptoms after allogeneic HSCT referred for an endoscopy to the Gastroenterology Department to establish the diagnosis of GVHD and assess the presence of HP infection, as well as any association of this infection with the development and severity of GVHD.Materials and MethodsWe performed a retrospective study on all of the patients who underwent allogeneic HSCT at the University Hospital of Salamanca between January 1, 1990, and December 31, 2008, and who were referred to our department for an upper GI endoscopy due to suspected GVHD. Patient and donor characteristics are summarized in Table 1. The graft sources were not manipulated, and there were no mismatched donors. All patients received bacterial prophylaxis with meropenem during the period of neutropenia, and omeprazole was administered until engraftment and achievement of adequate oral intake. The endoscopic findings from these explorations, histological findings of the biopsies (a minimum of 3 biopsies) performed during the procedure, and the presence of HP were retrospectively compiled. One pathologist involved in allogeneic HSCT for 15 years reviewed all of the samples. Standard hematoxylin and eosin was the stain used in all cases. The presence of apoptotic bodies in the biopsy specimen (minimum criterion), crypt abscesses, and/or destruction of glands were considered criteria for a diagnosis of acute or chronic GVHD, after ruling out other causes that also could induce these findings, such as drug-related toxicity or infections by blood and/or stool cultures, cytomegalovirus infection by antigenemia assay, or a reduced dose of the suspect drug.Table 1Baseline Characteristics of the Study GroupNumber of patients197Sex, n (%) Men114 (57.9) Women83 (42.1)Age, years, mean (SD)45.3 (14.0)Type of donor, n (%) Related130 (69.5) Unrelated51 (27.3) Others6 (3.2)Source of progenitor cells, n (%) Peripheral blood155 (83.3) Bone marrow31 (16.7)Type of conditioning, n (%) Reduced intensity118 (61.5) Myeloablative74 (38.5) ATG5 (2.5) Campath2 (1) TBI (myeloablative)17(23)Donor–recipient sex mismatch, n (%)72 (42.4)GVHD prophylaxis, n (%) CSA/tacrolimus + MTX142 (80.2) CSA/tacrolimus + MMF22 (12.4) Others13 (7.4)Endoscopic studies, n379 Gastroscopy, n (%)338 (89.2)First 100 days, n (%)223 (66.0)Days after transplantation, mean (SD)41 (24.0)After 100 days, n (%)115 (34.0)Days after transplantation, mean (SD)269 (210.0)ATG indicates antithymocyte globulin; CSA, cyclosporine; MMF, mycophenolate mofetil; MTX, methotrexate; SD, standard deviation; TBI, total body irradiation. Open table in a new tab Twenty-six patients required two endoscopies to confirm or rule out acute GVHD in the first 100 days post-HSCT. For these patients, we included the endoscopy in which the endoscopic and histological features were of a higher grade. Endoscopic findings were staged according to the classification system proposed by Cruz-Correa et al. [16Cruz-Correa M. Poonawala A. Abraham S.C. et al.Endoscopic findings predict the histologic diagnosis in gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease.Endoscopy. 2002; 34: 808-813Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar]: stage 0, normal; stage I, loss of vascular pattern and/or focal moderate erythema; stage II, edema and/or diffuse moderate erythema; stage III, edema, erythema, erosions, and/or bleeding; stage IV, ulceration, exudates, and/or bleeding.In the histological analysis, the presence of apoptotic bodies was considered “compatible with GVHD.” The histological findings were staged according to the classification system proposed by McDonald and Sale [17McDonald G.B. Sale G.E. The human gastrointestinal tract after allogeneic marrow transplantation.in: Sale G.I. Shulman H.M. The Pathology of Bone Marrow Transplantation. Masson, New York1984: 83Google Scholar] in 1984: grade 0, normal; grade I, single cell necrosis (apoptosis) noted under medium power; grade II, evidence of epithelial damage by crypt/gland abscesses, epithelial flattening, or crypt/gland dilations; grade III, dropout of one or more crypt/gland; grade IV, total epithelial denudation.A diagnosis of HP infection was confirmed if the bacterium was detected in the biopsy specimen from the gastric antrum.In the statistical analyses, performed with SPSS version 15.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL), percentages were used for categorical variables, and measures of central tendency (mean and/or median) and dispersion (standard deviation) were used for continuous variables. All dichotomous variables were analyzed with χ2 contingency tests to compare the frequencies of of categorical variables or, where appropriate, Fisher’s exact test and Monte Carlo simulations, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for odds ratios (ORs) were derived. Continuous and categorical variables were analyzed by analysis of variance. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyze confounding factors. Statistical significance was set at P < .05.ResultsBaseline characteristics of the study group are summarized in Table 1, Table 2. HP infection was detected in 69 patients (35%). The incidence of HP was significantly lower in patients with acute GVHD than in those without acute GVHD (15.5% vs 38%; relative risk [RR], 0.58; 95% CI, 0.44-0.76; P <. 001) (Figure 1). The association was confirmed by logistic regression adjusted for sex, age, donor type, progenitor cell source, sex mismatch, and type of conditioning regimen (OR, 2.87; 95% CI, 1.33-6.16; P = .007), as well as for GVHD prophylaxis (OR, 2.64; 95% CI, 1.25-5.55; P = .010).Table 2Frequency and Severity of GVHDOverall GVHD, n (%)182 (92.4)Acute GVHD, n (%)137 (75.2) GI GVHD97 (70.8)Grade I23 (23.7)Grade II56 (57.7)Grade III15 (15.4)Grade IV3 (3.1) Cutaneous GVHD52 (38) Liver GVHD30 (21.9)Chronic GVHD, n (%)120 (65.9) GI GVHD68 (56.6)Mild20 (29.4)Moderate36 (53)Severe12 (17.6) Cutaneous GVHD60 (50.0) Hepatic GVHD37 (30.8) Open table in a new tab Similarly, the incidence of HP was lower in patients with histologically confirmed chronic GVHD than in those without it (16.2% vs 32.2%; RR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61-0.92; P = .016) (Figure 2). These results were confirmed using logistic regression adjusted by sex, age, donor type, progenitor cell source, sex mismatch, and type of conditioning regimen (OR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.12-5.96; P = .025), but not when adjusted by GVHD prophylaxis.Figure 2Incidence of HP infection among patients with and without chronic GVHD.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Interestingly, in the patients without acute GVHD, the detection of HP in the biopsy specimens obtained within the first 100 days post-HSCT was related to a significantly lower risk for the subsequent development of chronic GVHD. In this regard, we found that 21.7% of the patients with HP infection developed chronic GVHD, compared with 52.2% of HP-negative patients (RR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.58-0.93; P = .011). Multivariate logistic regression analysis confirmed this association when adjusted by sex, age, donor type, progenitor cell source, and type of conditioning regimen (OR, 3.87; 95% CI, 1.25-11.94; P = .018) and by GVHD prophylaxis (OR, 3.45; 95% CI, 1.10-10.83; P = .034).Furthermore, HP infection was associated with significantly lower histological severity (11.1% severe forms in HP-positive cases vs 88.9% in HP-negative cases; P = .003), as indicated by a negative Pearson correlation coefficient (r = −0.26; P < .001) (Table 3). In contrast, we found no significant correlation with endoscopic severity according to the classification system of Cruz-Correa et al. [16Cruz-Correa M. Poonawala A. Abraham S.C. et al.Endoscopic findings predict the histologic diagnosis in gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease.Endoscopy. 2002; 34: 808-813Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar].Table 3Relationship between Histological Grade of GI GVHD According to the McDonald and Sales Classification System 17McDonald G.B. Sale G.E. The human gastrointestinal tract after allogeneic marrow transplantation.in: Sale G.I. Shulman H.M. The Pathology of Bone Marrow Transplantation. Masson, New York1984: 83Google Scholar and HP InfectionNot CompatibleGrade IGrade IIGrade IIIGrade IVHP-positive, n (% of histological grade)16 (41.0)26 (31.0)4 (9.1)2 (11.1)0HP-negative, n (% of histological grade)23 (59.0)58 (69.0)40 (90.9)16 (88.9)0 Open table in a new tab The overall incidence rate of GVHD was 92.4% (n = 182), and HP infection did not affect this rate (P = .14). The median follow-up duration was 64.5 months (range, 31.2-108.7 months). A total of 47 patients (23.8%) have died due to nonrelapse mortality, with a GVHD-related mortality rate of 40.4% (n = 19). The rate of response to immunosuppressive therapy was 77.7% (n = 153).DiscussionHP stimulates the release of a variety of inflammatory mediators, both directly by bacterial products and indirectly as a result of interaction with gastric epithelial cells. These factors allow HP to thrive in a niche that is inhospitable to almost every other enteric organism [18Yamaoka Y. Kikuchi S. el Zimaity H.M. et al.Importance of Helicobacter pylori oipA in clinical presentation, gastric inflammation, and mucosal interleukin 8 production.Gastroenterology. 2002; 123: 414-424Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (272) Google Scholar]. Recent epidemiologic studies have suggested that colonization with HP might protect against the development of certain autoimmune disorders, such as asthma [19Chen Y. Blaser M.J. Helicobacter pylori colonization is inversely associated with childhood asthma.J Infect Dis. 2008; 198: 553-560Crossref PubMed Scopus (282) Google Scholar, 20Reibman J. Marmor M. Filner J. et al.Asthma is inversely associated with Helicobacter pylori status in an urban population.PLoS One. 2008; 3: e4060Crossref PubMed Scopus (149) Google Scholar]. A negative association between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and HP infection has been established in numerous studies. A recent meta-analysis of 23 studies with a total of 5903 patients evaluated the relationship between HP infection and IBD [21Luther J. Dave M. Higgins P.D. et al.Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and inflammatory bowel disease: a meta-analysis and systematic review of the literature.Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2010; 16: 1077-1084Crossref PubMed Scopus (169) Google Scholar]. Thirteen of the studies noted a significant RR (<1), and no study found an RR of >1. Some 27% of the patients with IBD carried an HP infection, compared with an HP infection rate of 40.9% in the control group. The authors concluded that these results suggest that HP infection might have a beneficial effect on the development of IBD. Further studies are needed to confirm this conclusion.On the other hand, recent laboratory tests have ascribed a certain modulating capacity of the immune response to HP, with an increased number of regulatory T cells of the gastric mucosa that might modify the immune response and prevent a Th1/Th17 response [13Jones N.L. Shannon P.T. Cutz E. et al.Increase in proliferation and apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells early in the natural history of Helicobacter pylori infection.Am J Pathol. 1997; 151: 1695-1703PubMed Google Scholar, 14Moss S.F. Calam J. Agarwal B. et al.Induction of gastric epithelial apoptosis by Helicobacter pylori.Gut. 1996; 38: 498-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar]. Chen and Blaser [22Chen Y. Blaser M.J. Inverse associations of Helicobacter pylori with asthma and allergy.Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 821-827Crossref PubMed Scopus (299) Google Scholar] suggested that the intensity of the host response against especially aggressive HP strands (with the cagA gene) might alter the pattern of the Th1/Th2 immune response, with the subsequent induction of immunoregulating lymphocytes that might prevent immune hyperreactivity responses, such as asthma or allergy, in cases where the Th2 pattern is predominant.Two prospective studies of the relationship between GVHD and HP have been published to date. The first, by Correia-Silva et al. [23Correia-Silva J.F. Neto Victoria J.M. Guimaraes A.L. et al.Helicobacter pylori in the oral mucosa of patients submitted to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.Braz Oral Res. 2006; 20: 191-195Crossref PubMed Google Scholar], found no relationship between HP infection (established on the basis of polymerase chain reaction analysis of saliva) and the development of GVHD in 46 patients who underwent allogeneic HSCT. The second, by Au et al. [24Au W.Y. Wong R.W. Wong B.C. et al.Reduced incidence of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) of the gut in Chinese carriers of Helicobacter pylori during allogeneic bone marrow transplantation.Ann Hematol. 2004; 83: 34-37Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar], examined the association between HP infection before transplantation and the subsequent development of mucositis (drug-related toxicity) and acute GVHD in 128 patients. No increased risk of mucositis was found in patients with HP colonization; however, these patients exhibited a significant reduction in the risk of developing acute GI GVHD (RR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.13-0.98; P = .04). On multivariate analysis, the absence of HP infection and the presence of mucositis remained independent predictive factors of the development of GI GVHD.In the present study, we found that HP may protect against the development of GVHD, and this effect remains when we consider patients who have not sustained acute GVHD. Accordingly, HP-positive patients had a lower risk of acute and chronic GVHD. It could be argued that gastroscopy was performed only in patients with GI symptoms, so that in the absence of acute GVHD, we might have selected patients with other concomitant comorbidities, such as HP infection, which could account for these symptoms. Nevertheless, when we specifically analyzed patients without acute GVHD, the detection of HP on endoscopy performed during the first 100 days post-HSCT significantly decreased the risk of subsequent chronic GVHD. These results are consistent with the negative correlation observed between HP infection and histological severity. Type of conditioning and donor, progenitor cell source, and type of GVHD prophylaxis were not confounding variables in the association between GVHD and HP.This study has some limitations, including its retrospective nature and the fact that HP infection was diagnosed after the onset of symptoms. The standard hematoxylin and eosin stain is excellent for identifying histologically chronic or chronic active inflammation and demonstrates HP when large numbers of bacteria are present. Silver staining is better at detecting the organism when few bacteria are present, but does not optimally demonstrate tissue histology. The best approach is a combination of hematoxylin and eosin and Diff-Quick (Newark, Delaware) stain; thus, we likely underestimated the incidence of HP [25el Zimaity H.M. Segura A.M. Genta R.M. et al.Histologic assessment of Helicobacter pylori status after therapy: comparison of Giemsa, Diff-Quik, and Genta stains.Mod Pathol. 1998; 11: 288-291PubMed Google Scholar].To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to suggest that HP infection might have a protective effect against acute and chronic GVHD. Further prospective studies to evaluate the presence of HP before transplantation (urea breath test) and the relationship between CagA strands with the subsequent development of GVHD are merited. IntroductionAllogeneic stem cell transplantation is the best therapeutic option for many patients with hematologic malignancies, although it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, due mostly to graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) [1Welniak L.A. Blazar B.R. Murphy W.J. Immunobiology of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.Annu Rev Immunol. 2007; 25: 139-170Crossref PubMed Scopus (385) Google Scholar]. Acute gastrointestinal (GI) GVHD presents as nausea, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hemorrhage, and ileus, and carries a >80% risk of mortality in severe forms [2Leisenring W.M. Martin P.J. Petersdorf E.W. et al.An acute graft-versus-host disease activity index to predict survival after hematopoietic cell transplantation with myeloablative conditioning regimens.Blood. 2006; 108: 749-755Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar]. The GI tract is also a target organ for chronic GVHD, clinical manifestations of which include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, esophageal stricture or concentric rings, and pancreatic exocrine insufficiency [3Filipovich A.H. Weisdorf D. Pavletic S. et al.National Institutes of Health consensus development project on criteria for clinical trials in chronic graft-versus-host disease, I: Diagnosis and Staging Working Group report.Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2005; 11: 945-956Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2764) Google Scholar].Due to the frequency of GI symptoms during the first 100 days after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), more than 50% of patients are referred for an endoscopic evaluation of the enteric tract. Differential diagnosis of GVHD and other conditions, such as toxicity from chemotherapy or radiotherapy, drug-related adverse effects, and bacterial, viral, parasitic, or fungal infections, should be performed [4Cox G.J. Matsui S.M. Lo R.S. et al.Etiology and outcome of diarrhea after marrow transplantation: a prospective study.Gastroenterology. 1994; 107: 1398-1407Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 5Ross W.A. Ghosh S. Dekovich A.A. et al.Endoscopic biopsy diagnosis of acute gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease: rectosigmoid biopsies are more sensitive than upper gastrointestinal biopsies.Am J Gastroenterol. 2008; 103: 982-989Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar]. Endoscopic evidence of GVHD in the stomach and duodenum may range from normal mucosa to nonspecific signs such as edema, erythema, frank ulcers, and erosion of the mucosa [6Fallows G. Rubinger M. Bernstein C.N. Does gastroenterology consultation change management of patients receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation?.Bone Marrow Transplant. 2001; 28: 289-294Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar].Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a Gram-negative bacillus that has been linked to several digestive disorders, including gastric cancer and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. HP infection has coexisted with the human species for more than 50,000 years [7Falush D. Wirth T. Linz B. et al.Traces of human migrations in Helicobacter pylori populations.Science. 2003; 299: 1582-1585Crossref PubMed Scopus (745) Google Scholar, 8Linz B. Balloux F. Moodley Y. et al.An African origin for the intimate association between humans and Helicobacter pylori.Nature. 2007; 445: 915-918Crossref PubMed Scopus (687) Google Scholar]. The infection is acquired during childhood and, if untreated, remains present in the body throughout the lifespan, although it causes symptoms in only a subset of patients [9Kuipers E.J. Pena A.S. van Kamp G. et al.Seroconversion for Helicobacter pylori.Lancet. 1993; 342: 328-331Abstract PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar, 10Malaty H.M. El Kasabany A. Graham D.Y. et al.Age at acquisition of Helicobacter pylori infection: a follow-up study from infancy to adulthood.Lancet. 2002; 359: 931-935Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (320) Google Scholar]. The prevalence of HP infection is related to age, socioeconomic class, and country of origin, varying between 20% and 30% in developed countries and between 60% and 80% in some ethnic groups and developing countries [11Go M.F. Review: natural history and epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection.Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2002; 16: 3-15Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Humans are the primary reservoir, and several transmission methods have been proposed, including oral-oral, waterborne transmission, fecal-oral, and gastro-oral [12Graham D.Y. Sung J. Helicobacter pylori.in: Feldman M. Friedman L.S. Brandt L.J. 8th ed. Sleisenger & Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Philadelphia2006: 1049-1066Google Scholar]. Chronic HP infection can produce endoscopic findings similar to those seen in stage I and II GVHD, and histological analysis may reveal apoptotic bodies [13Jones N.L. Shannon P.T. Cutz E. et al.Increase in proliferation and apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells early in the natural history of Helicobacter pylori infection.Am J Pathol. 1997; 151: 1695-1703PubMed Google Scholar, 14Moss S.F. Calam J. Agarwal B. et al.Induction of gastric epithelial apoptosis by Helicobacter pylori.Gut. 1996; 38: 498-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar]. Mucosal biopsy and histological examination of specimens for the presence of HP is the diagnostic method of choice for patients in whom an endoscopy is clinically indicated, with a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 66%, and positive and negative predictive values of 84% and 100%, respectively [15Cutler A.F. Havstad S. Ma C.K. et al.Accuracy of invasive and noninvasive tests to diagnose Helicobacter pylori infection.Gastroenterology. 1995; 109: 136-141Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar].We conducted a retrospective study in patients with GI symptoms after allogeneic HSCT referred for an endoscopy to the Gastroenterology Department to establish the diagnosis of GVHD and assess the presence of HP infection, as well as any association of this infection with the development and severity of GVHD." @default.
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• W2143488462 title "Helicobacter pylori Infection and Graft-versus-Host Disease" @default.
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