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• W2321898288 abstract "Earth Embankments constructed from compacted material are an integral part of any flood defence network. In the UK alone more than 34,000km of embankments protect housing and infrastructure from estuarine and coastal flooding. Many such embankments are in a poor state of repair and with rising sea levels and increased levels of precipitation predicted results of climate change, such flood defences will be tested with increasing regularity. Fissures forming due to desiccation in clayey soils have been shown as a potential source of embankment failure during overtopping. Current methods of visually identifying fissures in flood embankments are inadequate particularly when faced with dense vegetation. The extent of fissuring cannot be discovered without the use of trenching, which is costly and destructive to the embankment structure. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) offers a non-invasive method for appraising the embankment structure. ERT has been shown to be sensitive to the presence of fissures in laboratory studies and an effective method for monitoring the onset of fissuring with inversion models mapping the fissure positions and allowing their growth to be observed. The presented study compares the use of a survey using ERT on the Thorngumbald embankment, near Kingston Upon Hull, UK, with previous laboratory studies on scale models using miniature resistivity arrays. Large scale scans across the slopes of the embankment showed areas of confirmed fissuring, while miniature arrays were used to fully map the fissures in the subsurface. The positions of surface fissures matched with those resolved from the resistivity data and the results compare favorably with those achieved in the laboratory. Additionally scans were taken across the embankment revealing serious fissuring on the landward face, the side most affected by heavy vegetation. Introduction Flood defences constructed from compacted fill material are subject to desiccation during dry periods. The resulting moisture loss and resultant build-up of internal suction pressure leads to volumetric shrinkage of the embankment body which can cause the formation of fissures leading from the soil surface into the structure of the embankment (Konrad and Ayad 1997, Peron et al. 2007). Such fissures can form interconnected networks with the topmost layer of soil forming polygonal blocks at the surface and separated from the rest of the embankment structure by subsurface fissuring (Konrad and Ayad 1997). These cracks are a known source of embankment failure during overtopping, where infiltrating water flows readily through the interconnected fissures on the embankment crest and slopes, resulting in slippage of the landward face and ultimately leading to an overall breach with continued erosion (Cooling and Marsland 1954). SAGEEP 2012 Tucson, Arizona USA http://www.eegs.org Figure 1: a) Polygonal blocks observed embankment surface; b) subsurface fissuring revealed through trenching (After Dyer et al. 2009). With climate models predicting a rise in sea-levels and increased levels of precipitation as a result of Climate change, existing flood defences will be tested with increasing regularity. In particular older flood defences, constructed with inferior methods and in a greater state of disrepair, will be placed under greater pressure and the likelihood of failure increased. Maintenance and inspection of such flood defences will therefore be of increased importance. Currently, the routine assessment of flood embankments involves a visual walk-along inspection of the embankment structure (Morris et al. 2007). Such inspections are generally conducted during winter months when vegetation on the embankment is lighter (Perry et al. 2003, BS 7370-5:1998). Vegetation however can still be sufficient to hide any surface fissures and to mask the severity of any existing fissuring network. This is particularly true when considering the landward side of the embankment whose vegetation is often left unmaintained. Additionally seasonal expansion of the soil in the wetter, winter months can result results in reduced crack width at the surface making fissure identification additionally difficult. The only existing method for establishing the extent of fissuring into the embankment structure is through trenching as conducted by Cooling and Marsland (1954) and Dyer et al. (2009). Trenching is both costly and time consuming and is ultimately destructive to the embankment structure. As can be seen, current methods employed for the inspection of flood embankments are inadequate when considering the existence of desiccation fissures. New methods are needed to complement visual inspections which allow surveyors to appraise embankment condition where visibility is poor and allows visualization of fissuring in the subsurface. (a) (b) SAGEEP 2012 Tucson, Arizona USA http://www.eegs.org Electrical Resistivity Tomography ERT and Fissuring The geophysical method examined in this study was Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) in 2D, consisting of line surveys with four electrode arrays. Previous laboratory studies have demonstrated ERT’s sensitivity to fissures in clayey soil (Samouelian, et al. 2003, Samouelian, et al. 2004, Sentenac and Zielinski 2009). Samouelian et al. (2003) measured an artificially created crack in a silty loam using a miniature scale Wennner-Alpha array. The data was processed using the RES2DINV software (Loke and Barker 1996a, Loke 2010), allowing the position of the crack to be estimated. Clear contrasts were established between the intact soil (low resistivity) and the crack (high resistivity) although the overall resolution was poor. Additionally Samouelian, et al. (2004) conducted a 3D survey on a desiccating soil block using square arrays in order to establish the dip angle of forming fissures. The study showed areas of increasingly high resistivity corresponding to positions of forming fissures, showing that ERT could be used to monitor the onset of fissuring. Sentenac and Zielinksi (2009) monitored the onset of fissuring on a model desiccated using infra-red lamps. The study used Schlumberger arrays to ensure the survey was sensitive to the formation of both vertical and horizontal fissures and the data was inverted using RES2DINV. The study successfully resolved the surface position of the fissures and monitored the fissures as they extended into the model. The research presented builds on the laboratory studies discussed, showing the methods applicability in the field. Additionally study investigates the use of miniature (0.1m spacing) and standard size arrays (1m spacing) to show differing levels of detail in fissure identification and demonstrates how the method can be used to observe fissuring where dense vegetation makes visual inspections difficult." @default.
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• W2321898288 date "2012-01-01" @default.
• W2321898288 modified "2023-09-25" @default.
• W2321898288 title "Fissure Monitoring and Detection in Flood Embankments Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography" @default.
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