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• W2335564804 abstract "We provide information on nest-site characteristics and nesting success of the greater pewee, Contopus pertinax, in the Huachuca Mountains of southeastern Arizona. Primary breeding habitats include montane pine-oak forests and sycamore or cottonwood riparian forests. Nests (n = 19) were found between 14 May and 29 June 1997, and between 31 May and 6 July 1998. Egg dates for combined years were between 12 May and 15 July; successful nests fledged young between 21 June and 17 July. Nest predation on greater pewee nests (47.4%) was the principal cause of reproductive failure. No greater pewee nests were parasitized by cowbirds, whereas cowbird parasitism ranged between 11% and 32% of host populations on the same sites. For all species monitored at both sites (n = 203) the frequency of cowbird parasitism did not vary between years; however nest predation was significantly higher in 1998 than 1997. While there was no year effect of nest failure among greater pewees, during the year of low nest predation frequency (1997) greater pewees had significantly higher nest success than other species on the same site. Overall, greater pewees fledged a mean of 0.8 ? 1.0 (SE) fledglings per nest, n = 19. Mean nest height was 11.6 ? 0.8 m in mature stage pines (DBH 46.6 ? 2.6 cm, mean nest tree height 19.7 ? 0.9 m). Greater pewees nested in trees that were significantly taller than canopy trees found in non-use sites. A combination of high nest placement and aggressive nest defense may account for the lack of brood parasitism and low rate of nesting failure caused by predation during low predation years. RESUMEN-Presentamos informaci6n sobre las caracteristicas de lugares de anidaje y el 6xito reproductivo de Contopus pertinax en las montafias de Huachuca del sudeste de Arizona. Los habitats principales de crianza incluyen bosques montafiosos de pino y roble y bosques riberenos de Populus. Los nidos (n = 19) fueron encontrados entre el 14 de mayo y 29 de junio de 1997, y entre el 31 de mayo y 6 de julio de 1998. Las fechas de huevos por afios juntos fueron entre el 12 de mayo y 15 de julio; los pollitos se fueron de nidos exitosos entre el 21 de junio y 17 de julio. La depredaci6n de los nidos de C. pertinax (47.4%) fue la causa principal del fracaso reproductivo. No encontramos nidos de C. pertinax parasitados por Molothrus, mientas que el parasitismo de Molothrus vari6 de 11% a 32% de las poblaciones anfitrionas en los mismos sitios. Para todas las especies observadas en ambos sitios (n = 203), la frecuencia de parasitismo por Molothrus no vari6 entre anios; sin embargo la depredaci6n de nidos fue significativamente mas alta en 1998 que en 1997. Mientras que no hubo efecto del aio en el fracaso de nidos en C. pertinax, durante el aiio de baja frecuencia (1997) de depredaci6n de nidos, C. pertinax tuvo un exito reproductivo significativamente mas alto que otras especies en el mismo sitio. Sobre todo, C. pertinax produjo un promedio de 0.8 + 1.0 (EE) volantones por nido, n = 19. La altura media de nidos fue 11.6 + 0.8 m en los pinos maduros (diametro a la altura del pecho-DBH 46.6 ? 2.6 cm). Contopus pertinax anid6 en arboles de dosel que fueron significativamente mas altos que arboles de dosel no utilizados para anidar. Una combinaci6n de la colocaci6n alta y la defensa agresiva de nidos puede explicar la carencia de parasitismo y la tasa baja de fracaso de nidos causada por la depredaci6n durante anios de depredaci6n baja. The greater pewee (Contopus pertinax) is a in the Madrean highlands of southern Arizona common summer resident of the montane and New Mexico, and northern Mexico (Amerpine-oak and mature upland riparian forests ican Ornithologists' Union, 1998). In Arizona, (Ligon, 1961; Phillips et al., 1964; Strong, 1987; the greater pewee is most abundant in monStotz et al., 1996; Chace and Tweit, 1999) withtane coniferous forests where it can be found HWESTERN RALIST ( ):169-175 J E The Southwestern Naturalist sallying for insects primarily from the canopy (Chace and Tweit, 1999). Primary breeding habitats include montane evergreen forest, pine-oak forest, and sycamore (Platanus wrightii), walnut (Juglans major), and cottonwood (Populus angustifolia, P fremontii) riparian forest (Phillips et al., 1964; Strong, 1987). Throughout its range, the timing, nest-site characteristics, and ecological correlates of nesting success of the greater pewee are poorly known. As part of a larger study on factors affecting the reproductive success of forest songbirds in southeastern Arizona (J. F. Chace, pers. obser.), information on the nest-site characteristics and nesting success of the greater pewee in the pine-oak forests of the Huachuca Mountains were gathered. We tested whether nesting success of greater pewees was related to microhabitat, macrohabitat, or anthropogenic characteristics. METHODS AND STUDY AREAS-The Huachuca Mountains (elevation 1,800 to 2,450 m, 31?26'N, 110?20'W) of southeastern Arizona extend in a southeasterly direction terminating just over the Mexican border. We conducted nest searches in the mixed pine-oak forests (ponderosa pine, Apache pine, Chihuahua pine, southwestern white pine, Douglas-fir, silverleaf oak, netleaf oak, and Emory oak [Latin names for plants listed here and elsewhere are in Tables 1 and 2]) at two sites 9 km apart within the Huachuca Mountain range: Sawmill Canyon on Fort Huachuca (elevation 1,900 m) and Reef Townsite in Coronado National Forest (elevation 2,250 m). Sawmill Canyon is a thickly-wooded, broad canyon, dominated at the canopy level by mature stage pines, principally ponderosa, Apache, and Chihuahua pines, and at the understory level by Emory, netleaf, and silverleaf oaks. The canopy of Reef Townsite is composed of southwestern white pine and the same pine species found in Sawmill Canyon. The understory is more diverse, consisting of the same oak species found in Sawmill plus shrubs of the Madrean community (e.g., Arizona madrone, pointleaf manzanita, alligator juniper). Reef Townsite has patches of mature pine stands separated by the oak and shrub community. The patchiness of pine-oak stands in the oak-manzanita scrub matrix is due, in part, to a large crown fire that swept the area in 1977 that destroyed most of the canopy cover pines. We located nests by binoculars from ground vantage points during various phases of reproduction. Nests were observed and monitored every 3 to 4 days following standardized nest monitoring protocol (Ralph et al., 1993) until the nest had either succeeded or failed. Nests were considered successful if they fledged -one pewee young. Nest visits were truncated near the fledging date. Once the young appeared above the nest rim we determined the number of nestlings, and whether or not a young cowbird had successfully developed to near fledging in a greater pewee nest. Causes of nest failure were recorded as predation, cowbird parasitism, or weather, based on behavior of adults, observations of fledglings, and known nesting period (30 days; Ehrlich et al., 1988). We could not directly ascertain clutch size or parasitism for most nests because of nest height, however we relied on adult behavior and disposition of nest to determine whether the nest was active, depredated, or failed due to weather events. We searched for fledglings at nests that were near or past the expected fledging date because adults are known to feed fledglings on perches near nests for several days after leaving the nests (Chace and Tweit, 1999). Only nests in which the final outcomes were known were included in the analysis. Nesting success was calculated using the method of Mayfield (1961, 1975) to reduce the error introduced when nests observed for different lengths of time are treated equally. We measured five microhabitat, nine macrohabitat, and five landscape level nest site characteristics for each nest. At the microhabitat level we measured nest tree height, nest tree diameter at breast height (DBH), nest height, and distance from nest to the outer edge of foliage, and nest to trunk. Heights were measured with a clinometer; distances from nest to trunk and foliage tip were estimated. At the macrohabitat level we measured slope and percent canopy cover, average canopy height, and ground cover within 5 m radius of the nest. Additionally, stem density (>50 cm tall, 400 m2), human opening, and edge of adjacent plant community. Mean values of nest site parameters are reported as ? standard error (SE). The identical procedure, except nest height, nest to trunk and, nest to tip measurements, was used for non-use site measurements at locations 35 m away from each greater pewee nest along the same contour line. Direction from the nest was chosen at random. One nest was collected (post-fledging) and deposited in the University of Colorado Museum Ornithology collection (UCM #13476). This nest and the remains and contents of two other nests blown out of trees (post-fledging) were obtained for nest material analysis. 170 vol. 45, no. 2 Chace et al.-Greater pewee nesting ecology TABLE 1-Comparison of species richness and evenness of trees (vertical stem >8 cm diameter at breast height) between greater pewee use (nest) and non-use sites in the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, 19971998 (n = 19 for both types)." @default.
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• W2335564804 title "Nest-Site Characteristics and Nesting Success of the Greater Pewee in Arizona" @default.
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