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• W239780411 abstract "The present study investigated realistic perceptions of control, age, and gender as potential moderators of the effect of community violence exposure (victimization and witnessing) on children's hope. Home interviews were conducted with 99 8 to 12 year old children (99% African-American) living in high violence areas of a large southeastern city. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that the model accounted for nearly 30% (R2= 0.29) of the variance in hope. A significant three-way interaction involving victimization, realistic control perceptions about controllable events, and age was plotted. Specifically, although all younger children experienced a decline in hope as victimization increased, those who were able to accurately assess the controllability of controllable events experienced a much lesser drop in hope. A similar decline was found for older realistic children. However, older children who were unable to accurately assess the controllability of controllable events experienced a small increase in hope as victimization increased. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. 12 BEST COPY AVAILABLE PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY oro4 ()skin TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Introduction Hope has been conceptualized as a stable cognitive mindset that develops over time, as children experience success at meeting challenges and in conquering obstacles to their goals (Snyder et al, 1994). It is composed of two factors: pathways and agency. Pathways refer to the child's belief in his/her own ability to generate the paths or strategies necessary to succeed in meeting his/her goals, while agency refers to the child's belief that s/he has the energy and determination to meet those goals. A high-hope mindset is produced by past successes and is characterized by the expectation of future positive experiences. Many children today, however, are growing up in environments plagued by chronic community violence. Research has found that children who grow up in violent communities have shorter life expectancies and are likely to experience additional stressful life events (Osofsky, 1995). These stressful and violent experiences could affect children's ability to produce successes, both in the present and for their expectations for the future. In fact, these children have been found to develop a less positive view of the future (Osofsky, 1995). Does hope develop in children growing up under such adverse conditions? Theoretically, Snyder's model suggests that the development of hope would be impaired under conditions where successes were minimized. Snyder and his colleagues (1994) found that children who were high in hope had a greater internal locus of control. Control has been widely studied, and its mediating and moderating effects on the stress adjustment relationship in children and adolescents are well established (Wannon, 1990; Cowen et al., 1991; Kliewer & Sandler, 1992). In addition, the effectiveness of various coping strategies have been found to be related to the controllability of the stressful situation (Kliewer & Sandler, 1992). In controllable situations, it's more adaptive to appraise the situation as a challenge and to use problem-focused coping strategies. However, in uncontrollable situations, redefining the situation as less threatening is more adaptive (Folkman, 1984; Kliewer & Sandler, 1992). Wannon (1990) found that high-risk urban 4th to 6th graders who had more realistic perceptions of control (about both controllable and uncontrollable events) were more resilient and showed higher teacher-rated adjustment, social problemsolving skills, empathy, and internal locus of control. The present study examined the moderating effects of children's ability to realistically assess the controllability of events on the relationship between their violence exposure and hope. The possible moderating effects of age and gender were also examined. Method Ninety-nine children (40 boys, 59 girls) living in moderate to high violence areas (based on police statistics) of a large southeastern city were interviewed individually in their homes by trained interviewers, who read all questions and response options aloud to each child from a prepared script. The children were from 8 to 12 years old (M = 10.7, SD = 1.3), and ranged from first to eighth grades (74.2% were in the fourth to sixth grades). Ninety-five percent were African-American, and most were poor: median income ranged from $5,000 to $10,000. Children's violence exposure was measured across 17 different types of violent events, using Richters and Saltzman's (1990) Survey of Exposure to Community Violence (Self-Report Version). Victimization and witnessing events were assessed separately. Total violence exposure, as indexed by this measure, has been correlated with child-rated distress, the Child Depression Inventory, and child-rated fear at school. One-week test-retest reliability has been" @default.
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• W239780411 title "Realistic Control Perceptions, Age, and Gender as Moderators of the Relationship between Victimization and Hope in Children." @default.
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