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• W2406136683 abstract "The challenge of shaving is to cut the beard hair as closely as possible to the skin without unwanted effects on the skin. To achieve this requires the understanding of beard hair and male facial skin biology as both, the beard hair and the male facial skin, contribute to the difficulties in obtaining an effective shave without shaving-induced skin irritation. Little information is available on the biology of beard hairs and beard hair follicles. We know that, in beard hairs, the density, thickness, stiffness, as well as the rates of elliptical shape and low emerging angle, are high and highly heterogeneous. All of this makes it challenging to cut it, and shaving techniques commonly employed to overcome these challenges include shaving with increased pressure and multiple stroke shaving, which increase the probability and extent of shaving-induced skin irritation. Several features of male facial skin pose problems to a perfect shave. The male facial skin is heterogeneous in morphology and roughness, and male skin has a tendency to heal slower and to develop hyperinflammatory pigmentation. In addition, many males exhibit sensitive skin, with the face most often affected. Finally, the hair follicle is a sensory organ, and the perifollicular skin is highly responsive to external signals including mechanical and thermal stimulation. Perifollicular skin is rich in vasculature, innervation and cells of the innate and adaptive immune system. This makes perifollicular skin a highly responsive and inflammatory system, especially in individuals with sensitive skin. Activation of this system, by shaving, can result in shaving-induced skin irritation. Techniques commonly employed to avoid shaving-induced skin irritation include shaving with less pressure, pre- and post-shave skin treatment and to stop shaving altogether. Recent advances in shaving technology have addressed some but not all of these issues. A better understanding of beard hairs, beard hair follicles and male facial skin is needed to develop novel and better approaches to overcome the challenge of shaving. This article covers what is known about the physical properties of beard hairs and skin and why those present a challenge for blade and electric shaving, respectively. Le défi du rasage est de couper les cheveux de la barbe aussi près que possible de la peau sans effets indésirables sur la peau. Atteindre cet objectif exige la compréhension de la biologie des poils de barbe et de la peau du visage mâle, puisque les cheveux de la barbe et la peau du visage masculin contribuent aux difficultés à obtenir un rasage efficace sans une irritation cutanée induite. Peu d'informations sont disponibles sur la biologie des poils de barbe et les follicules pileux de la barbe. Nous savons que, dans les poils de la barbe, la densité, l’épaisseur, la rigidité, ainsi que les taux des formes elliptiques et d'un faible angle émergent sont élevés et très hétérogènes. Tout cela fait qu'il est difficile de les couper, et des techniques de rasage couramment employées pour surmonter ces défis comprennent le rasage avec une pression accrue et des multiples passages, ce qui augmente la probabilité et l'ampleur de l'irritation induite par le rasage. Plusieurs caractéristiques de la peau du visage mâle posent des problèmes à un rasage parfait. La peau du visage mâle est hétérogène dans la morphologie et de la rugosité et la peau des hommes a tendance à guérir plus lentement et de développer la pigmentation hyperinflammatoire. En outre, de nombreux hommes présentent une peau sensible, avec le visage le plus souvent affecté. Enfin, le follicule pileux est un organe sensoriel, et la peau périfolliculaire est très sensible à des signaux externes, y compris la stimulation mécanique et thermique. La peau périfolliculaire est riche en vasculature et innervation et en cellules du système immunitaire innée et adaptative. Cela rend la peau périfolliculaire très réactif et inflammatoire, en particulier chez les personnes ayant la peau sensible. L'activation de ce système, par le rasage, peut entraîner une irritation de la peau induite par le rasage. Les techniques couramment utilisées pour éviter cette irritation cutanée comprennent le rasage avec moins de pression, le traitement avant et après rasage, et l'arrêt complêt de se raser. Les progrès récents dans la technologie de rasage ont abordé certaines mais pas toutes ces questions. Une meilleure compréhension des poils de barbe, des follicules pileux de la barbe et de la peau du visage mâle est nécessaire pour développer de nouvelles et meilleures approches pour relever le défi du rasage. Cet article traite de ce qui est connu sur les propriétés physiques des poils de la barbe et de la peau et pourquoi celles-ci présentent un défi pour le rasage à la lame et le rasage électrique, respectivement. The essential challenge of shaving is to cut the beard hair as closely as possible to the skin without unwanted effects on the skin. This is not a new challenge, as men have shaved their beard for more than 8000 years. Today, shaving has become the most common cosmetic practice in men, and it is not only required for professional or cultural reasons, but also has developed into a ritual with an important psychosocial impact 1. The development of shavers, over time, has led us from sharpened pieces of flint, stone knives, clamshells and shark teeth to highly sophisticated mechanical razors and electrical shavers. But as of today, shaving remains a challenge and none of the systems available at present have addressed this challenge completely. The reasons for this include the physiology and anatomy of male beard hair, the responsiveness of perifollicular facial skin to mechanical and thermal stimuli, and our insufficient knowledge of beard hair biology and the underlying mechanisms of shaving-induced skin irritation. Here, we have summarized our current knowledge of features of male beard hair and facial skin that contribute to the challenge of shaving and of the features and mechanisms of shaving-induced skin irritation. The main reasons why beard hairs make it difficult to obtain a clean shave are their high density, thickness, stiffness, the high rates of elliptical shape, their fast growth and low emerging angle, the large heterogeneity of these features and hairs growing in different directions and in irregular growth patterns (Table 1). In general, hair properties play a more important role in blade shaving, as the hair functions as a counter bearing to the blade. For electric shaving, due to the scissor-like cutting of hairs, the counter bearing is part of the shaver cutting elements, and hence, the physical properties of the hairs have less effect on cutting efficiency. The density of beard hair follicles varies with facial area and ethnicity. Values range between 20 and 80 follicles/cm2 3, 17. High densities of beard hair follicles can contribute to multiple stroke shaving. Blade shaving of beard hair is particularly affected by the diameter of beard hairs. The higher the cross-sectional area of the hair, the more force is needed to cut it. Beard hairs have more cuticle layers than scalp hairs 4. As a consequence, their diameter is twice that of scalp hairs (Fig. 1), and more force is needed to cut them 4, 5. Beard hair, when dry, shows a high stiffness, that is resistance to deformation in response to an applied force, such as a blade. Beard hair stiffness is less of a problem for electric shaving. The hair has been claimed to be equivalent to a copper wire of similar diameter, with respect to the forces needed to cut it 2. In comparison with the perifollicular skin, beard hair is reportedly more than 1000 times stiffer 6. The high stiffness of beard hair increases the force needed to cut it and may contribute to the forces applied during shaving. Hydration can reduce the stiffness of beard hair by 30–65% 5, 7. The force needed to cut a beard hair is reduced by about 20% within the first minute of water contact. After four minutes, the cutting force is reduced by 40% and does not significantly decrease further with longer hydration 2. The male beard hair is typically more variable in shape than the scalp hair, with elliptical, asymmetrical, oblong and trilobal profiles 4. During shaving, the advancing blade is thought to turn the hair, which can rotate in its follicle, to present to the blade with its largest diameter, thereby increasing the blade contact area and required cutting force 6. Hair growth underlies complex regulatory mechanisms and occurs in cyclic phases of active hair growth (anagen) and resting (telogen) with a transient intermediate phase (catagen). About 85–90 per cent of hairs, at any given time, are in the anagen phase 8. During the anagen phase, the hair follicle cells show high mitotic activity in the hair bulb and the dermal papilla, resulting in the hair shaft development. The visible hair shaft is composed of an outer cuticle, the cortex and, sometimes, a core of compact keratin 9. Beard hair grows fast. The average daily growth rate of beard hair ranges between 0.3 and 0.5 mm, which is similar to the growth rate of scalp hairs and is about twice as fast as that of eyebrow hairs 10. The rate of hair growth also depends on additional environmental and endogenous factors such as hair pigmentation. For example, white beard hair reportedly grows more than twice as fast (1.12 mm day−1) as pigmented hair (0.47 mm day−1) 11. Beard hairs, as compared to scalp hairs, have lower emerging angles. This is especially the case in the neck region, and this is one of the reasons held to be responsible for the high rate of shaving-induced skin irritation observed in this region. The low emerging angle of beard hairs is held to contribute to the occurrence of ingrown hairs and pseudofolliculitis barbae. With regard to shaving, low emerging hairs are challenging for the blade to cut as compared to hairs with higher than 45° emerging angles. For electric shavers, the key challenge of such hairs is for them to feed into the apertures of the shaver foil. All of the beard hair features that are relevant to shaving exhibit considerable variability, both between and within individuals. These heterogeneities are a major challenge for efficient and well-tolerated shaving. Ideally, a shaving technique and the instrument employed provide optimal results in all subjects, at all sites, every time. However, what works best in one individual may not do so in another and what works best for one facial site may not be best for other sites or at other times. Here, we provide examples of beard hair heterogeneity that are relevant to shaving. Macroscopically, hair of different ethnic groups varies in length, diameter, colour, growth rate and cross-sectional shape, and these features also vary intra-individually and site-specifically 12. Human scalp hair is usually classified according to three ethnical human subgroups, that is African, Asian and Caucasian. In addition, eight main hair types have been proposed, based on the measurement of curve diameter, curl index and number of waves 13. Hair of African, Hispanic and Asian individuals is commonly held to be darker and thicker than that of Caucasians, although recent studies suggest to not support such a universal view. More specifically, Japanese men and Caucasian men have been shown to differ in their rate of beard hair growth 14, with beard hairs in Caucasians showing up to eight times more facial hair mass than Japanese men, depending on the age of subjects 15. Interestingly, other factors also contribute significantly to beard hair growth rates. For example, a British study reported that the growth of beard hair, as well as that of hair of other body regions, shows seasonal variations and has its maximum during the summer months 16. Hair growth rates were lowest in January and February, and they increased steadily thereafter by up to 60% and peaked in July. Also, beard hairs exhibit different hair cycle lengths depending on their location. Ethnic groups have also been demonstrated to exhibit differences in male facial hair growth patterns. For example, the average facial area of beard growth in Chinese men is smaller than in Caucasians. The growth pattern in Chinese men concentrates around the mouth, whereas less hair appears on the cheek, neck and chin, where hair density is significantly higher in Caucasians. In both, Chinese and Caucasian men, beard hair grows most densely in the upper lip area where hair density shows no difference 17. Finally, the diameter of human hairs can vary considerably, from 17 to 180 μm, which correlates to a 10-fold difference. Beard hairs also show considerable heterogeneity in their diameters. Interindividual differences appear to be greater than intra-individual ones. In contrast, there is a high variability in beard hair shape across different facial sites within the same individual. Features of male facial skin that make it difficult to shave without irritating the skin include its heterogeneity in morphology and roughness, the high rates of men with sensitive skin, the potentially slower wound healing capacity and higher pigmentation and the fact that perifollicular skin shows strong responses to environmental stress (Table 2). Male facial skin is heterogeneous in morphology and roughness, and the physiology of the facial skin varies significantly between adjacent areas, even within the same individual. For example, there are large differences in many of key variables when comparing the properties of cheek and neck skin, many of which importantly affect the outcomes of shaving. Neck skin, for instance, exhibits greater roughness than cheek skin, which is why neck skin more frequently prohibits the beard hair from protruding freely from its follicular opening and from becoming ‘trapped’ (ingrown hair). As compared to female facial skin, the dermal compartment is thicker and male facial skin more progressively thins with age up to the time when menopause starts in females. In contrast, female facial skin shows more subcutaneous fat than in male 18. The majority of the general population assess themselves as having sensitive skin 19. Although this is considered to be a more prevalent problem for women, the number of men claiming to have sensitive skin is substantial 19. In self-assessment surveys, about 40% of men rate themselves to have sensitive skin 48. About one-third of men report having experienced a skin reaction to a personal care product in the past. About 14% of men experienced some kind of problem within the last 12 months 20. Today, about 80% of dermatologists notice an increase in male patients reporting sensitive facial skin. Important factors which influence the incidence of perceived skin sensitivity include environmental factors, stress, increased acceptance in society and increased use of cosmetic products. Over 90% of dermatologists agree that the selection of shaving products is of high importance for men with sensitive skin 19. Male skin also exhibits significantly higher transepidermal water loss as compared to female skin of the same age. Men performing daily skin care exhibit significantly lower sebum production and transepidermal water loss levels 21, 22. In addition, several factors may predispose an individual for self-perceived sensitive skin. For example, atopic dermatitis or other inflammatory skin conditions such as acne or rosacea may reinforce the mechanically induced inflammatory response to shaving in these populations. Shaving may also induce specific skin irritation in individuals with symptomatic dermographism, a condition in which shear forces induce mast cell activation, histamine release in the skin and the subsequent development of itch and a wheal-and-flare response. Male skin has been reported to exhibit slower wound healing and lower re-epithelialization capacity as compared to female skin. In addition, male skin responds faster to suction blister induction and has a higher basal blood flow, and blood vessels dilate at a higher temperature 8-11. In part, these gender-specific properties appear to be due to hormonal effects. Even though these differences are without apparent relevance in clinical dermatology, shaving-induced skin irritation, microtrauma, or even nicks and cuts induced by shaving may take longer to repair, especially in facial skin subjected to daily shaving 23, 24. This is speculation and should be subjected to rigorous studies, but it suggests that shaving can have a different impact on male skin compared to female skin because of differences in the response to skin wounding 18, 25 There are reported differences in the extent of skin pigmentation comparing male and female skin. Women tend to have an overall lighter complexion than men do. This difference can be observed in all ethnic groups and all skin types 18. The fact that male skin is generally more deeply pigmented than female skin may explain why men are more prone to develop post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation with trauma 2. As post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation tends to stay visible for many weeks or even months, traumatically induced hyperpigmentation is an important issue. The skin compartment surrounding the hair follicles is equipped with a dense network of perifollicular blood vessels, immune cells and nerve fibres. Teleologically, this is because hair, including beard hair, and the perifollicular skin have various physiological functions. Besides mechanical protection from environmental threats, the hair and the perifollicular skin have important tactile functions and the hair follicle is a sensory organ, which is innervated and designed to sense the environment including mechanical and thermal changes and skin stimulation. As the hair follicle breaches the epidermis, the follicle ostium is a point of entry for pathogens and irritants and allows for easy penetration of various external substances. Because of this, the hair follicle and the perifollicular skin provide very potent protection from infection and other environmental threats. For example, the perifollicular skin is rich in innate immune cells, such as macrophages and mast cells. Mast cells are perfectly suited to exert an immediate response to pathogens and physical stimuli by being anatomically closely related to sensory nerves, particularly in the perifollicular skin area, and mast cells have been suggested to exhibit intense functionally interaction with the hair follicle and sensory nerves 26-28. In particular, mast cells and sensory nerves share a large set of mediators and receptors allowing for diverse functional interaction 26. Furthermore, sensory nerves have been shown to modulate mast cell dependent inflammatory skin responses by the release of neuropeptides such as substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide 29. In addition, mast cells have been implicated in the regulation of the physiological hair follicle cycling by modulation of hair follicle regression (catagen) and are involved in orchestrating perifollicular growth (anagen) immune responses and interaction with immune cells of the innate and acquired immune system such as CD8 T cells 30-32. Mast cells are equipped with a large repertoire of different receptors expressed on their surface, ranging from immunoglobulin, complement and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as well as other receptors for pathogens and pathogen-derived products. In addition, mast cells express numerous specific receptors of endogenous (e.g. neuropeptides) and exogenous (e.g. components of snake and bee venoms) peptides, cytokines and other inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, after activation of one or more of these receptors, mast cells can secrete a wide array of biologically active mediators. Mast cells have also been reported to recruit other immune cells, to produce anti-microbial peptides and to exert direct bactericidal activities 33-36. Mast cells are able to react to numerous different stimuli and to release potent inflammatory and immunomodulatory products within minutes after their activation. Thus, mast cells are in an ideal position to protect from various dangerous threats but also to induce responses to innocent environmental stimulation like shaving. The skin represents an important barrier for exogenous threats, such as pathogens and physical stimuli. Mast cells contribute to this barrier as they function as sentinels in the skin, helping to limit or even prevent the damage that results from these environmental threats. Disruption of skin barrier integrity, for example by mechanical trauma with the subsequent risk of pathogen invasion, activates mast cells which can reduce the risk of infection by accelerating wound closure 37 and augmenting bacterial clearance 38. Although the activation of mast cells in such settings initially contributes to the features of skin irritation, that is redness, swelling, and pain, mast cells may, by inducing this immediate inflammatory skin response, also contribute to the protection of severe tissue damage and infection 39. These important functions of mast cells may be the root cause of the symptoms such as redness and burning sensation observed as shaving-induced skin irritation (Fig. 2). Physical irritation of the skin most commonly induces an inflammatory response with local hyperaemia but without tissue defect. Shaving-induced skin irritation, colloquially often called ‘razor burn’, can manifest as temporary redness of the shaved skin mostly associated with burning and itching. Shaving-induced skin irritation is a known issue with both blade shaving and electric shaving. The drivers and mechanisms of shaving-induced skin irritation are insufficiently characterized and yet not well understood. Some of the features of male beard hair and male facial skin that make shaving challenging are likely involved, at least in part, in the induction of shaving-induced skin irritation. Beard hair thickness has an influence on the force that has to be applied for blade shaving, and the strength of the applied force directly affects the shearing force on the hair follicle and the surrounding skin, possibly linking the rates and extent of mechanically induced inflammatory responses to shaving thicker hair. Beard hair density may also affect the risk and severity of shaving-induced skin irritation responses. Higher hair density may increase the force applied during shaving, the number of strokes per site, or both. The intensity and frequency of shaving-induced skin irritation may depend on ethnic differences. For example, African beard hair follicles often are positioned in the dermis at an acute angle to the skin surface 40. Because of this, shaving could lead to a stronger stimulus on the perifollicular skin and therefore increased shaving-induced skin irritation. During the shaving process, the beard hair has been shown to become highly mobile in some individuals. The elliptic profile of the beard hair results in a rotational motion within the hair follicle while the razor blade itself causes an extraction of the hair in an axial direction. Although the latter effect facilitates cutting the hair close to the skin surface, it also may augment mechanically induced shaving irritation 2. Shaving-induced skin irritation may in addition be caused by cutting irregular elevations of the skin, particularly around the follicular openings potentially leading to microlesions 41. As of today, no study specifically aimed at the identification of causes and triggers of shaving-induced skin irritation of the male facial skin has been published. Therefore, it is largely unknown whether shaving-induced skin irritation and the subsequent inflammatory reactions are caused by trauma due to superficial skin abrasion or by interaction with the hair shaft transmitting signals to the perifollicular skin compartment. Due to the weak evidence from the literature, it may be conceivable to believe that shaving-induced skin irritation is most likely a result of a mechanically induced neurogenic inflammation with reflex hyperaemia, which may be caused by microtrauma. The concept of neurogenic inflammation assumes that certain sensory nerves (C fibres), which occur in the perifollicular skin, not only exhibit afferent (receptive) functions to perceive mediation of pain, burn and itch, but also exert an efferent neurosecretory function by which physical stimuli result in the release of a large array of neurogenic mediators that are able to cause inflammatory responses 42-44. The activation of sensory nerve fibres by noxious stimuli leads to a release of neuropeptides such as substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide from peripheral nerve endings 26. These neuropeptides and subsequently other released mediators, such as histamine, cause the inflammatory response at the site of mechanical stimulation, thereby resulting in a flare response 45-47. Therefore, it may be reasonable to postulate that shaving-induced skin irritation is caused by a signal transmission from the perifollicular skin via sensory nerve endings: sensory nerve endings that sense a mechanical stimulus applied to the skin are activated to release neuropeptides. Subsequently, neuropeptides will exert dual effects (i) by directly acting on blood vessels inducing vasodilation and extravasation and (ii) by activating resident immune cells, such as mast cells. Although a large number of pharmacologically active substances and mediators have been identified to modulate the intensity and duration of neurogenic inflammation, the detailed mechanisms are poorly understood. Therefore, the interactive link between the neural network and the local skin immune system as well as individual skin properties which may additionally influence the onset, intensity and duration of neurogenic skin inflammation needs further investigation to better understand the underlying mechanisms and ultimately to prevent the unwanted features of shaving-induced skin irritation. There are many issues that make shaving a challenge. The male beard hair exhibits several differences in growth pattern, shape and physiology than hair of other body regions. Beard hair is highly heterogeneous and variable when comparing different ethnic populations but also within the same individual. These structural properties of the beard hair have an important impact on shaving comfort. Heterogeneity in beard hair requires different cutting forces to cut the hair, which increases with the thickness of the hair. The discomfort of shaving proportionally increased with the force that is needed to cut the hair 5 and is most likely a result of activating the skin immune system via neurogenic inflammation. Therefore, the quality of a shave not only depends on the shaving technique but also, and probably most importantly, on individual skin and hair properties. In addition, this total skin regimen as well as the instruments used will influence the quality of the shave. Technology has come a long way, but we need better solutions to avoid the large variety of inflammatory reactions caused by the simple interaction between shaving device and the hair. Dr Rietzler and Dr Burghardt are employees of Procter & Gamble. M. Maurer and F. Siebenhaar received honoraria for advise, lectures and institutional funding from Procter & Gamble." @default.
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• W2406136683 title "The male beard hair and facial skin - challenges for shaving" @default.
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