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• W2410160074 abstract "Original ArticlesIodide Concentrations in Saudi Waters: A Cause for Concern Riad A. Sulimani, FRCPC, FACP Omar Al-Attas, PhD Mahmoud El-Desouki, FRCPC Mohammed Eissa, MD Comm. Med Abdulrahman A. Al-Nuaim, and FRCPC, FACP Mohammed A. Al-SekaitPhD Riad A. Sulimani Address reprint requests and correspondence to Dr. Sulimani: Department of Medicine (38), College of Medicine, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2925, Riyadh 11461, Saudi Arabia. From the Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author , Omar Al-Attas From the Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author , Mahmoud El-Desouki From the Faculty of Science, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author , Mohammed Eissa From the Faculty of Medicine, Ministry of Health, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author , Abdulrahman A. Al-Nuaim From the Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author , and Mohammed A. Al-Sekait From the Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh. Search for more papers by this author Published Online:1 Nov 1991https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.1991.655SectionsPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail AboutAbstractSamples of tap water and drinking mineral water from different regions of Saudi Arabia were analyzed for iodide content. Low iodide concentrations were found in all samples. This finding may reflect an overall low iodide content in the soil and consequently also in locally grown food, which could predispose to endemic goiter. In the absence of data on the prevalence of endemic goiter, we recommend the routine use of iodized salt in Saudi Arabia.IntroductionDespite major advances in modern medicine, nutrition-related disorders continue to plague mankind with iodine deficiency among them.Chatin, during 1850 to 1854, was the first scientist to recognize the natural presence of iodide in water, soil, air, and foods from various localities [1]. He concluded that the occurrence of endemic goiter was related to a deficiency of environmental iodide, and recommended that the water supply in goitrous areas be enriched with iodide.Since that time, many epidemiological surveys have confirmed association of endemic goiter to deficiency of iodide in food and water [2]. The present study was undertaken to assess the iodide content in natural and mineral waters consumed in Saudi Arabia.MATERIAL AND METHODSFor estimation of iodide concentration in water, tap water from different cities and towns was obtained. These included: Al-Ammariah (Northern territories), Ara'ar, Eon Al-Jowaa’ (Al-Qassim), Najran, Al-Remailah (Al-Hassa), Al-Baha, Buraidah, Afeef, Al-Jouf, Medinah, Hafar Al-Baten, Shagra, Meccah, Taif, Jeddah, Riyadh, and Gizan-Abu Arish. The following brands of mineral water were also tested: Nissah, Itti Moyah, A1 Wadi, Hana, Al-Qassim, A1 Rawadah, Taiba, and Najran. Iodide concentration was calculated by the selective electrode method described by Pungor [3]. Quality control samples with different concentrations using standard solutions of sodium iodide were used to evaluate a precise method within the minimum sensitivity limit of the electrode (10−7M, r = 0.999). Samples of local crude salt and iodized salt were tested using the same method after they had been dissolved in distilled water.RESULTSIt was found that the iodide content in the natural and mineral waters consumed in the Kingdom is generally low (Tables 1 and 2). The iodide content ranges from 0.0044 to 0.0105 mmol/L (mean, 0.0075 ± 0.0026 mmol/L) in the tap water and from 0.003 to 0.006 mmol/L (mean, 0.0045 ±0.0011 mmol/L) in bottled mineral waters. There is also a large difference in the iodide content of the crude and iodized salts consumed in Saudi Arabia, ranging from 0.0058 to 0.0536 mmol/gm of wet salt (Table 3).Table 1. Iodide concentration in Saudi waters.Table 1. Iodide concentration in Saudi waters.Table 2. Iodide concentration in Saudi “mineral” watersTable 2. Iodide concentration in Saudi “mineral” watersTable 3. Iodide concentration in table salts used in Saudi ArabiaTable 3. Iodide concentration in table salts used in Saudi ArabiaDISCUSSIONThe iodide content of drinking water varies considerably worldwide. Our study revealed a low iodide content in the water consumed in Saudi Arabia. This applies to both the water obtained by desalinization (Riyadh for example) (mean, 0.00075 ± 0.0026 mmol/L) and to “mineral” bottled water (mean, 0.0045 ± 0.0011 mmol/L). These levels are low compared with the average concentration of iodide in ground water of 5 μg/L (0.039 mmol/L) [2]. In the USA, the iodide concentration in shallow wells in rural Virginia was 1.0 to 18 μg/L (0.008-0.14 mmol/L) with a median of 3.5 μg/L (0.027 mmol/L). In suburban Maryland it was 4 μg/L (0.03 mmol/L) [4].Drinking water supplies only 10% of the total daily intake of iodide [5]. A daily requirement of 150 μg/day was estimated for adults above the age of 10, with 250 μg/day recommended for pregnant and lactating mothers [5]. The water iodide content has been noted to correlate with the incidence of endemic goiter in some parts of the world. Kupiz [6] found that the iodide content in the water supplies in goitrous regions in Latvia was only 0.1 to 0.2 μg/L (0.0008-0.0015 mmol/L), whereas it was 2 to 15 μg/L (0.0008-0.0015 mmol/ L) in nongoitrous areas. Low water iodide content in water reflects the reserve in soil and rocks in a particular geographical region. A low reserve is also reflected in locally grown foods.The use of iodized salt in food has largely diminished the role of iodine in drinking water and food, especially in industrialized countries where the use of iodized salt is routine. The addition of iodide to food, such as bread, milk, dairy products, chicken, and eggs (due to the use of fish flour in chicken food) has also contributed to the increase in iodide intake to acceptable requirements [7].However, certain points must be made clear. First, “local” noniodized salt is still widely used for home cooking in many communities in the Kingdom despite the availability of iodized salt. The reasons may be related to cost or taste or both. Such local salts are produced in Al-Shegga and Al-Gasab regions as well as in some other areas of the Kingdom. Second, the low water iodide contents reflect the low soil reserves and consequently possibly low iodide content in local food staples as well. Consequences of this nutritional deficiency may be more obvious in mountainous areas where access to seafoods may be minimal. Hence, the well-known frequent occurrence, until today, of endemic goiter in some mountainous regions of the world. Whether a similar phenomenon occurs in the Saudi mountainous regions of Asir is an important question which needs to be answered.Knowledge of iodide deficiency and its potential endocrine, metabolic, and neurological implications requires that its possible existence in this part of the world be investigated.An epidemiological survey of endemic goiter is currently being conducted in the Kingdom. It is hoped that the results will provide needed information that may be used to relate occurrences of goiter to the existence of low iodide content. Until such a survey is completed, iodized salt should be used routinely in the Kingdom.ARTICLE REFERENCES:1. Medvei VE. The birth of endocrinology, Part I. In: Medevi SC, ed. A history of endocrinology. Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982; 213–88. Google Scholar2. Koutras DA, Matovinovic J, Vought R. The ecology of iodine. In: Stanbury JB, Hetzel BS. eds. Endemic goiter and endemic cretinism. New York: Wiley, 1980; 185–95. Google Scholar3. Pungor E. Theory and application of anion selective membrane electrodes . Anal Chem. 1967; 39 (13): 28A–45A. Google Scholar4. Vought RL, London WT, Stebbing GET. Endemic goiter in Northern Virginia . J Clin Endocrinol. 1967; 27: 1381. Google Scholar5. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances, ed 9. Washington DC: National Research Council, National Academy of Science. Google Scholar6. Kupiz J. Die jodfrage in lettland in zusammenhange mit dem Kropfe . Z Hyg Infektionskr. 1932; 113: 551–73. Google Scholar7. Koutras DA, Papapertrou PD, Yataganas X, Malamos B. Dietary sources of iodine in areas with and without iodine-deficiency goiter . Am J Clin Nutr. 1970; 23: 870–4. Google Scholar Previous article Next article FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited byAl-Nuaim A, Al-Mazrou Y, Kamel M, Al-Attas O, Al-Daghari N and Sulimani R (2019) Iodine Deficiency in Saudi Arabia, Annals of Saudi Medicine , 17:3, (293-297), Online publication date: 1-May-1997.Ahmed M, Al Saihati B, Greer W, Al-Nuaim A, Bakheet S, Abdulkareem A, Ingemansson S, Akhtar M and Ali M (1995) A Study of 875 Cases of Thyroid Cancer Observed Over a Fifteen-Year Period (1975–1989) at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Annals of Saudi Medicine , 15:6, (579-584), Online publication date: 1-Nov-1995. Volume 11, Issue 6November 1991 Metrics History Accepted25 December 1990Published online1 November 1991 ACKNOWLEDGMENTWe thank Ms. Bennie Campos for typing the manuscript and Mr. Noel Vigo for performing the analytic assays.InformationCopyright © 1991, Annals of Saudi MedicinePDF download" @default.
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