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W2463040185 abstract "Part 50 described the founding of limnology and its worldwide development, from 1870s to 1920s (Egerton 2014a). E. A. Birge and Chancy Juday in Wisconsin and August Thienemann in Germany remained active after the 1920s (Juday and Hasler 1946:472–480, Thienemann 1959:78–489, Frey 1963b, Elster 1974:13–19, Egerton 2008b, 2015a:37–39), but their stories are not continued here, though their influence is mentioned. I am unable to survey fully the history of all American limnology, 1930–1990, but here are aspects of it. The detailed Limnology in North America (Frey 1963a) is a valuable resource for part of this period and includes Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean Islands. It is mostly a survey of American limnological knowledge, not history of limnological science. Three directories of biological stations, compiled by U.S. biologists, are useful, though marine stations outnumber freshwater ones: Homer Jack (1945), Biological Field Stations of the World is quite brief and includes a few stations not aquatically focused; Robert Hiatt (1954), Directory of Hydrobiological Laboratories and Personnel in North America is the most detailed; Hiatt (1963), World Directory of Hydrobiological and Fisheries Institutions. The American Institute of Biological Sciences (2010) has reprinted from BioScience a booklet (ii + 72 pages) of articles—one from 2002, six from 2009—of historical relevance, entitled Topics in Biological Field Stations. Laura Tydecks et al. (2016) compiled worldwide data on biological field stations and have published a summary of their findings, giving a web site for the details. “Mac” McIntosh (1985:124–127) briefly surveyed history of limnology in The Background of Ecology, four pages of which concern the period of this part 57. Part 57 uses the careers of G(eorge) Evelyn Hutchinson (1903–1991) and Arthur D(avis) Hasler (1908–2001) to illustrate pathways in American limnology, 1930–1990. Hutchinson's contributions to population ecology were briefly described in part 55 (Egerton 2015b:595). He was a leading ecologist of the 1900s and Hasler was the illustrious head of limnology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. A survey of Hutchinson's contributions to limnology is facilitated by his own autobiographical The Kindly Fruits of the Earth (1979), Nancy Slack's excellent biography (2010), and by an anthology of Hutchinson's most notable publications (Hutchinson 2010). For Hasler, there is his own survey of Wisconsin limnology, 1940–1961 (Hasler 1963a), a volume commemorating a century of limnology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (Beckel 1987:31–56, + illustrations on 63–74, Egerton 1987a), a biographical memoir for the National Academy of Sciences (Likens 2002), and two biographical summaries (Carpenter and Kitchell 2001, Egerton 2008a). Hutchinson (1947–1948) and Hasler (1949–1950) served as presidents of a newly organized American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, and they were the first limnologists elected to the National Academy of Sciences. Hasler was ESA president in 1961. Courtesy Center for Limnology, UW-Madison Hutchinson's father was an outstanding mineralogist at the Cambridge University who taught Evelyn about the mineralogy, geology, and flora of Cambridgeshire, and his progressive mother wrote a book, Creative Sex (1936; Burgess 1996:56–57, Slobodkin and Slack 1999, Slack 2010:17–22, Egerton 2015a:40–42). Evelyn became interested in aquatic animals by age of six, and he won a school prize, a book on insects by Jean Henri Fabre (Slack 2010:22, 138). He also led a Cambridge junior natural history society, and at age 15, he published a note on a swimming grasshopper (1918). His particular interest became aquatic insects (Slack 2010:34). At Cambridge University, he received a prize in zoology, and a B.A. degree, in 1925. He later published his evaluations of the Cambridge zoologists and other scientists he knew there (1979:87–101). He explained that a M.A. degree was awarded after further work in one's field (awarded to him in 1928), and with further publishing, he could have obtained a doctorate by paying a fee, but declined to do so. The zoologist who most influenced Hutchinson was his next-door neighbor, George P. Bidder, whom he had known all his life, and who studied sponges (Slack 2010:50). Bidder's sponge course introduced ecological questions concerning the sponges’ environments. Hutchinson also took J. T. Saunders’ excellent course on hydrobiology, which covered both limnology and oceanography (Slack 2010:54). When later asked why Hutchinson had stood out as an undergraduate, English limnologist Penelope Jenkin replied it was because of his encyclopedic memory that stored readings since his childhood (Slack 2010:61). After graduating, a Rockefeller Fellowship enabled him to go to the Stazione Zoologica in Naples to investigate a possible endocrine gland in the octopus. It was not a fruitful investigation—he blamed a scarcity of octopi—but, he managed to publish a tentative article (1928, Slack 2010:70). He applied for and received a two-year lectureship at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. It was a great chance to study an exotic fauna. However, his research at the University was not on lions or zebras, but on the temperature tolerance and dispersal of South African water bugs, of which there were only 14 species known when he arrived, but 40 known when he left (1929, Slack 2010:74–75). His fiancée, Grace Pickford, after graduating from the Newnham College, Cambridge University, received a Newnham College Traveling Fellowship to travel and study in South Africa, 1925–1927, and they married in Cape Town. Pickford, who kept her maiden name, had also studied under Saunders. After they married, she collaborated with him in his South African research, leading to a half dozen or so scientific articles (with her name only on two as coauthor; Hutchinson 2010:326–327). The substantial article in which they collaborated with J. F. M. Schuurman, on the hydrobiology of pans and other inland waters of South Africa (Hutchinson et al. 1932), was Hutchinson's first important contribution to limnology (W. T. Edmondson, quoted in Slack 2010:117). It was also pioneering work beyond the temperate environments of Europe and North America, simultaneous with Thienemann's first limnological investigations of tropical lakes (Rodhe 1974, Egerton 2008b:36–37). In 1928, after reading Thienemann's Die Binnengewässer Mitteleuropas (1925), Hutchinson realized that his recent investigations had led him to become a limnologist (Hutchinson 1979:208). Hutchinson obtained a lectureship at the Yale University in 1928. Pickford had no position when they arrived in September, but she worked on a Ph.D., and eventually they both became professors of zoology at Yale, though their marriage ended in 1933 (Slack 2010:202–205). Ironically, she became an authority on the octopus after he divorced her. Hutchinson became Yale's first ecologist, and he taught limnology, and in 1936 began teaching an ecology course which Russian entomologist-arachnologist Alexander Petrunkevitch previously taught as natural history (Slack 2010:91–92, 99). The chairman of the Department of Zoology, Ross G. Harrison, became an important mentor for Hutchinson (Hutchinson 1979:214–219, Slack 2010:92–97). In 1932, Yale sponsored an expedition to the Himalayan Mountains in the Ladakh region of Kashmir, India, which had never been explored by scientists. Hutchinson became the expedition zoologist, and he collected macroscopic fauna from lakes over 17,000 feet elevation, along with chemical and physical data on the lake waters. He sent specimens to specialists in America, Europe, and India to identify and name, and he published three scientific papers and a book, The Clear Mirror (1936), on his discoveries and experiences (Hutchinson 2010:327, Slack 2010:100–114, 434–435). It is an odd book, but odd in a characteristic way. Pages 3–96 are a sort of learned anthropological travelog, describing people, buildings (mostly religious), and ceremonies; pages 104–153, entitled “Lakes in the Desert,” are his observations of the barren high elevations, with its few people and its glacial lakes, in northern Kashmir. This latter part emphasizes limnology and geology, but discusses some terrestrial ecology. An end note explains that the natural history material appeared in another form in three articles in the Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. He had a valuable opportunity to compare the limnology of desert lakes in South Africa and India, which he neatly summarized on one page for Nature (1933). “Although short, this paper highlights Hutchinson's early capacity to approach lakes from multiple perspectives” (Post and Schindler 2010:84). Water bugs, a childhood interest of Hutchinson, were the main focus of his research in South Africa. Since Hutchinson was the world's authority on water bugs, the British Museum in 1930 sent to him at Yale 723 specimens to identify. Hutchinson expanded his interests as he progressed through life, but he seldom, if ever, abandoned an earlier interest. As late as 1981, he published a lifetime of “Thoughts on aquatic insects,” with new generalizations, showing that he remained the world's authority (Hutchinson 1981). Hutchinson's greatest influences came from his numerous publications and from mentoring his outstanding graduate students (Edmondson 1971, Kohn 1971). By 1971, when he retired, he had supervised 34 completed doctoral dissertations; five others were in preparation; and he had had a strong influence on nine other dissertations (Anonymous 1971). Not all of his illustrious graduate students studied limnology, and this survey only discusses some who did. Growing up for Tommy Edmondson (1916–2000) was similar to Hutchinson's in one respect: he also grew up in the city where he would go to college, and he became acquainted with some of its zoologists before entering college; in his case, that was Yale University (Burgess 1996:38, Egerton 2015a:49). His high school biology teacher took him to a Yale lecture, and afterwards he met Hutchinson and they discussed Edmondson's interest in rotifers (Slack 2010:115–117). After Hutchinson returned from Ladakh, he turned over to Edmondson his rotifers to describe (while Edmondson was still in high school), which Edmondson did (Edmondson and Hutchinson 1934). Although not limiting his interests to rotifers, Edmondson continued studying them and became the world's authority on them. After earning his B.S. at Yale in 1936, on Hutchinson's recommendation, he went to the University of Wisconsin for the school year 1938–1939, where he took Juday's limnology course and met Yvette Hardman, whom he later married. In Wisconsin, Edmondson collected sessile rotifers and used the extensive data collected by Birge and Juday on Wisconsin lakes “to examine the relative significance of calcium concentration, bicarbonate concentration, and pH as measures of alkalinity” (Hutchinson 1988:1231). He then returned to Yale and wrote a dissertation under Hutchinson, and obtained his Ph.D. in 1942. After teaching at Harvard and at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Edmondson moved to the University of Washington in 1949, where he and Yvette spent the rest of their productive careers (she became editor of Limnology and Oceanography). He became best known for restoration of Lake Washington. By Marion Kohn. Edmondson (1971:163). Courtesy John Wiley and Sons. I am deeply indebted to Evelyn for introducing me to his own scientific philosophy about ecology, which was ahead of its time and has permeated all my plankton work. He maintained that populations needed to be studied in terms of dynamic processes—rates of production and consumption and the way these are affected by ecological factors. Riley's career shows how easily an American ecologist might move between limnology and biological oceanography (Slack 2010:142). Edward S. Deevey, Jr. (1914–1988) was Hutchinson's second graduate student (Burgess 1996:36, Slack 2010:128–132, Egerton 2015a:115). He received his B.A. degree in biology from Yale in 1934, with his main interest in botany. However, he wanted to study the history of Linsley Pond by taking cores from the bottom. No one in the Botany Department was interested in that (until he got his cores), but Hutchinson was, and so Deevey worked under him. Linsley Pond, like Walden Pond, qualifies as a lake in current terminology (photo in Hutchinson 1941b:24). Deevey studied paleobotany using pollen grains in the cores and paleozoology using fossil fauna in two Connecticut lakes. This was in the 1930s, before radiocarbon dating became available. In 1946, a vacancy became available at Yale, and he remained there for the rest of his career. He and Hutchinson adopted radiocarbon dating when that method became available, and Deevey got a grant to establish a Yale Geochrometric Laboratory in 1951. Courtesy Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Limnologists Birge and Juday had studied extensively the stratification of temperature and oxygen in Wisconsin lakes (Egerton 2014a). One might expect that studies on lake distribution of other elements would merely show that those elements followed the same or similar patterns. However, that was not what Hutchinson and his associates found at Linsley Pond. They studied the distribution of alkalinity (bicarbonate ion) in the hypolimnion and found that that water interacted chemically with the bottom mud, when its water was stirred by epilimnion movement from wind, but without the waters in the two layers mixing (Hutchinson 1938). Hutchinson then wondered what one might learn by following the paths of other elements in the aquatic environment. He built upon this study in the first two parts of his 40-page article on “mechanisms of intermediary metabolism in stratified lakes” (1941b), in which he again emphasized the bottom mud as a source for hypolimnion alkalinity (Hutchinson 1941b:39–40). This highly mathematical article may have been an intimidating shock to descriptive ecologists of that time, and a hint to ecology students to take as many mathematics courses as they could manage. The third part is on “The Phosphorus Cycle in Linsley Pond.” Hutchinson used the methods Juday and Birge (1931) had used in their own studies on lake phosphates. He also compared his findings at Linsley Pond to theirs from Lake Mendota. On the occasion of the opening of the University of Wisconsin's Laboratory of Limnology, Hutchinson talked on “The lacustrine microcosm reconsidered” (1963, published 1964) and took as his starting point publications by Birge and Juday and by Forbes. Raymond L. Lindeman (1915–1942) received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in March 1941 and came to work under Hutchinson on a post-doc grant in September 1941 (Cook 1977:22, Reif 1986, Burgess 1996:66). Lindeman had already become familiar with Hutchinson publications while in Minnesota, and so their meeting of minds went smoothly from the start—which was fortunate since Lindeman died about 10 months later, on 29 June 42. Lindeman (1941) published a couple of papers based upon his Ph.D. dissertation, but he is remembered mainly for “The trophic dynamic aspect of ecology” (1942). Its starting point was the last chapter of his dissertation, and it represents Lindeman's broad synthesis of his own, Hutchinson's, Thienemann's, Juday's, Elton's, Tansley's, and others’ ideas. An introductory statement to Lindeman's article summarizes the scope of its discussion: “Quantitative productivity data provide a basis for enunciating certain trophic principles, which, when applied to a series of successional stages, shed new light on the dynamics of ecological succession” (1942:157). He had studied the succession of shallow lakes to marshes and then to land. This article is often seen as the beginning of a “new ecology:” more dynamic, quantitative, ecosystemic, theoretical, and less descriptive than the “old.” It was too theoretical for two referees for Ecology (Juday and Welch), who turned it down, but Hutchinson prevailed in having Ecology publish Lindeman's posthumous article (Cook 1977:23–24, Golley 1993:48–52; Hagen 1992). Lindeman's 1942 article had implications far beyond its limnological context, but that was its context. On June 21, 1946, Hutchinson had a sample of radiophosphorus (P32) that was introduced into Linsley Pond, in 24 parts, distributed across the lake. He was assisted by graduate student Vaughn Bowen, who was also Hutchinson's research assistant. This is the first known experiment in nature using radioisotope tracers (Slack 2010:159). They returned to Linsley Pond a week later and collected water samples from four depth layers (Hutchinson and Bowen 1947:149). Previous studies indicated, indirectly, that “there is a continual liberation of phosphorus from the mud into the free water.” (Hutchinson and Bowen 1947:148). What they now found was that “phosphorus has entered the epilimnion during a period when there can have been practically no vertical mixing,” and “Of the 25.8% of the P32 put into the lake and not recovered, the greater part had probably entered the aquatic plants and sediments in contact with the 0–3 m. layer” (Hutchinson and Bowen 1947:152). Later, he noted “Rigler's extraordinary discovery (1956, 1964) that the turnover time of ionic phosphorus in the epilimnion of a lake in summer can be of the order of 1 minute.” (Hutchinson 1969:19). H(oward) T(homas) Odum, like Hutchinson, was son of a prominent university professor; he was also the younger brother of ecologist Eugene Odum (Hall 1995, Burgess 1996:82, Brown and Hall 2004, Egerton 2015a:99–102). During World War II, H.T. served in the Air Force “as a tropical meteorologist, where undoubtedly he gained his basic interest in large systems and the energetics behind them” (Brown, Hall and Jorgensen 2004:4). After graduating from the University of North Carolina, he went to graduate school at Yale and worked under Hutchinson for his Ph.D. Hutchinson (1943) had published a thorough analysis of the “Biogeochemistry of aluminum and certain related elements” which provided an example of an analysis for comparable studies on other rare elements. It seems likely that Hutchinson suggested to Odum that he do his dissertation research on the strontium cycle (Limburg 2004:31). Odum's dissertation was entitled The Biogeochemistry of Strontium (1950), and he published afterwards two articles from it in Science (Odum 1951a,b). The role of size differences in permitting the coexistence of closely allied species of birds and mammals has been stressed by Huxley (1942:280–281) and Lack (1944). Brooks (1950a) has employed the same idea in his interpretation of the distribution of Odontogammarus in Lake Baikal. It is obviously possible that in invertebrates with little metamorphosis and prolonged life histories, competition of adults of the smaller species with sub-adults of the larger species may produce complications. In spite of this and perhaps other difficulties, the existence of size differences seems to one way by which sympatric species of restricted groups of planktonic animals can exist under conditions in which, in general, competition might be supposed inevitably to eliminate one form. This paragraph is an early example of Hutchinson's theoretical thinking. Hutchinson proved himself as a talented limnologist in a wide variety of investigations, and his Treatise on Limnology (four volumes, 1957–1993) is probably the longest treatise in ecology published by one person (Slack 2010:151–155); it exceeds François Alphonse Forel's achievement in Le Léman (three volumes, 1892–1904), the longest treatise written by one person on one lake (Lake Geneva). Hutchinson's Treatise has thematic volumes: (1) Geography, Physics, Chemistry (xiv + 1015 pages, 1957), (2) Lake Biology and Limnoplankton (xi + 1115 pages, 1967), (3) Limnological Botany (xi + 660 pages, 1975), and (4) Zoobenthos (xi + 944 pages, 1993). He died before finishing volume four, which Yvette Edmondson edited; Hutchinson had enlisted her assistance in 1988. He had plans for additional chapters in volume four on aquatic communities and for a fifth volume on productivity, succession, sediments, and paleolimnology (Edmondson 1993:ix–x). All the volumes have numerous charts, illustrations, and bibliographies. The theory for which Hutchinson is most remembered is a quantitative niche (Slack 2010:275–280, 285–288 et passim). A detailed nonmathematical version was a talk he gave in 1964, “The Niche: An Abstractly Inhabited Hypervolume” (Hutchinson 1965:26–78). According to Garret Hardin (1960) and some less prominent predecessors (Hutchinson 1965:27–28), two species cannot occupy the same niche; one will prove to be the better competitor and drive the other species out. However, in both oceans and fresh waters, different species of phytoplankton coexist in a fairly uniform environment. Hutchinson presented his answer to this puzzle at a symposium on 27 December 1960, partly inspired by Hardin's article (Hutchinson 1961), but his response was also an updating of an earlier article (Hutchinson 1941a). The longest chapter in Hutchinson's Introduction to Population Ecology is on “What Is a Niche?” (1978:152–212). It is a mathematical presentation, though its end-summary of 3.5 pages contains only one equation. Hutchinson was one of the greatest limnologist of the 1900s (Forel held that honor for the 1800s). Modern science, more than ever, is a collaborative effort, and Hutchinson was also a great collaborator, who was generous in acknowledging contributions from his collaborators. That trait undoubtedly accounts for the number of animals named for him. Although an anthology of his writings devotes less than a quarter of its pages to limnology (Hutchinson 2010:83–157), the following section on theory, also includes limnological subject matter (pages 222–230, 236–241). He retired from teaching at Yale in 1971, and in recognition of his scientific and pedagogic contributions, both Limnology and Oceanography and the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences had special issues in his honor. The March 1971 issue of Limnology and Oceanography had an introductory essay by editor Yvette Edmondson, “Some components of the Hutchinson legend,” with eight photographs of him from boyhood to 1971, followed by his bibliography until 1971, followed by a list of 34 students who had written doctoral dissertations under his supervision, five students who had begun dissertations under him which were not yet finished, and nine students who wrote under supervision by other faculty in which he was on their dissertation committee, with a strong influence. Those lists were followed by Alan J. Kohn's Phylogeny and Biogeography of Hutchinsonia: G. E. Hutchinson's Influence Through His Doctoral Students (with Kohn being one of his doctoral students). In addition to that ingenious article, Marion A. Kohn drew two illustrations, of “Hutchinson's Phylogenic tree of intellectual descendants,” and of the 22 animal species named in his honor (above, Figs. 2, 3). Courtesy John Wiley and Sons. Chapter 4, “New England,” was by John L. Brooks (b. 1920), and Deevey, two Hutchinson former students still at Yale in 1963. Their long account on Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine has numerous maps, tables, and charts, but no portraits of limnologists. Their “History” section is on environmental history and human use history, not history of the study of New England limnology. The above discussion of Hutchinson and his students concerns limnology in New England. An example of Brooks’ own research is Predation, Body Size, and Composition of Plankton (Brooks and Dodson 1965). F. Herbert Bormann (1922–2012) was a World War II U.S. Navy veteran who used the G. I. Bill to attend Rutgers University, where he studied plant ecology under Murray Buell (Likens and Hedin 2014, Egerton 2015a:83–85). After Bormann graduated (B.S. 1948), Buell sent him to the Duke University (M.A. 1950, Ph.D. 1952), where he studied forestry as well as plant ecology. He visited U.S. Forest Service Experiment Station at Coweeta, southwestern North Carolina, while at Duke, and when he later taught at the Emory University (1952–1956), he took students there. He moved to Dartmouth College in New Hampshire in 1956; when he saw the U.S. Forest Service Hubbard Brook Experiment Station, he realized that watershed experiments could be conducted there similar to those at Coweeta. Gene Likens (b. 1935) taught at Dartmouth for the fall semester 1961, and after he received his doctorate at Wisconsin under Hasler, he joined the Dartmouth Zoology Department (1963). Bormann and he applied for a NSF grant to study the Hubbard Brook ecosystem, which they received, and that research, first explained in Bormann and Likens (1967), has been continued by them and others ever since (Likens et al. 1977, Egerton 2015a:85–87). Stream analysis is an important aspect of these studies. Likens and Hubbard Brook collaborators discovered for the first time that atmospheric acids were an important environmental problem in America, affecting even aquatic environments (Likens et al. 1972, Likens and Bormann 1974, Jenkins et al. 2007:41). Acid rain had only recently been discovered in Europe (Mysterud 1971, Rodhe 1972). In a retrospective article, Likens (2010) discussed difficulties going from discovery of acid rain to legislation to control pollution causing it. Cooper and Fuller (1945). Courtesy, Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. From Brooks and Deevey (1963:143) The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest had been established in the White Mountain National Forest, New Hampshire in 1955 as a center for hydrologic research for New England. It is a bowl-shaped valley of 3138 hectares (~32 k2). Bormann and Likens began their still-ongoing ecosystem study in 1963, and this area became a Long-Term Ecological Research site in 1988. Hydrological data for this site, 1955–2000 is online (Bailey et al. 2003). Bocking (1997a:116–147) and Likens (2013) summarized years of research at the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study. David Frey's chapter on early Wisconsin limnology (1963b) ends in 1940, and Hasler's following chapter (1963a) extends from 1940 to 1961. By 1930, Wisconsin limnological studies covered a broad array of topics, and continued to do so during the 1930s, still under Juday's guidance (Juday and Hasler 1946, Egerton 2015a:37–38). The University of Wisconsin maintained limnology laboratories at both Madison and at Trout Lake in northern Wisconsin. Juday was a founder of the Limnological Society of America and was its first president (1935–1937). Juday's The Annual Budget of an Inland Lake (1940) was “exceptionally important…because it gave ecologists a theoretical structure that would show if an energy analysis was complete” (Golley 1993:47; Hagen 1992). U.S. Forest Service. Art Hasler was born in 1908 into a Mormon family in Lehi, Utah (Burgess 1996:52, Egerton 2008a, 2015a:70–73). He believed that his Mormon background provided him with ethical and intellectual values that contributed substantially to his successful career. His boyhood interests were in fishing, raising livestock, camping, nature study, and the Boy Scouts. As an undergraduate at the Brigham Young University, he decided to follow his father's example to become a physician. However, when he graduated in 1932, his father was ill, and in the Depression, he was unable to afford medical school. He had majored in zoology and could afford to enter graduate school at the University of Wisconsin in Madison because he could earn expense money while a student (Egerton 1987a:94–95, 2015a:70–73, Likens 2002:3–4). He was one of the 13 graduate students who obtained a Ph.D. under Juday, and Juday suggested that he write his dissertation on the digestion physiology of plankton crustacean. He agreed and published his findings (Hasler 1935, 1937). In summer 1935, he began working for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service studying the effects of sulfate pulp mill wastes on oysters in the lower York River in Virginia. He transferred sick oysters from the York to the nearby Piankatank River and healthy oysters from the Piankatank to the York. Undisturbed oysters in both rivers served as controls. He found that sick oysters recovered when moved to the Piankatank and that healthy oysters sickened when moved into the York (Galtsoff et al. 1947). This research, a controlled field experiment, was a prelude to Hasler's later introduction of experimental limnology as a hallmark of his guidance in limnology. After two years with the Fish and Wildlife Service, Hasler returned to the University of Wisconsin, completed his Ph.D. in 1937, was hired as an instructor of zoology, and was promoted to assistant professor in 1941. He had become fluent in German during his teenage Mormon field service in Germany, and in 1945, when he entered Germany with the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, he took the opportunity to become friends with Karl von Frisch in Munich—who later won his Nobel Prize for studies on bee behavior (Egerton 2016:66–67), but who had also studied fish behavior (von Frisch 1941a,b)—and Wilhelm G. Einsele at the Anstalt für Fischerie, Weissenbach an Attersee, near Salzburg, Austria (Egerton 1987a:97). Frisch conducted sensory and behavioral studies on bees during the summer and on fish during the winter. In 1949, he went on a lecturing tour in the United States and was Hasler's guest when he lectured at the University of Wisconsin (von Frisch 1967:138–139, 165–166). Hasler obtained a Fulbright Research Scholarship for the school year 1953–1954, which he spent at Frisch's laboratory in Munich, refining his skills in researching fish behavior. Hasler was interested in Einse" @default.
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W2463040185 title "Part 57: Aspects of Limnology in America, 1930s to about 1990, Led by Hutchinson and Hasler" @default.
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