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• W2495142191 abstract "-We examined three factors (predation rate, incubation ability, and feeding ability) that might limit clutch size in the Least Flycatcher (Empidonax minimus) in an area where large emergences of midges (Chironomidae) provided abundant food for adults and nestlings. Clutch size ranged from two to five eggs, but clutches of four were most frequent (78.6% of 192 clutches) during our study. Rate of nest predation was not correlated with either clutch or brood size which suggests that Least Flycatchers did not lay smaller clutches in order to minimize predation. Incubation efficiency declined as clutch size increased, but both natural and experimental clutches of five produced more hatchlings than clutches of four. Brood size was not limited by incubation ability of females. Least Flycatchers successfully raised broods larger than the modal clutch size; neither growth rates (as measured by mass and tarsus length) nor relative survival after fledging (as indicated by frequency of recapture in mist nets) varied with brood size. We suggest several alternative hypotheses to explain why larger clutches were not more common in this local area of food abundance. Received 18 February 1988, accepted 14 December 1988. LACK (1954) proposed that clutch size in altricial birds is determined by the maximum number of young that parents can feed adequately. One testable prediction of this hypothesis is that modal clutch size also should be the most productive. Nonetheless, brood enlargement experiments designed to test the foodlimitation hypothesis have been equivocal (see summary in Lessells 1986). In some species, broods with extra young fared worse than young in normal-sized clutches (e.g. Mourning Dove, Zenaida macroura, Westmoreland and Best 1987), while in others, enlarged broods produced more surviving young (e.g. Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus, Nur 1984a). Although enlarged broods sometimes were more productive, young from these nests often fledged at below average mass (e.g. European Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, Crossner 1977). Because postfledging survival is correlated positively with prefledging mass (Perrins 1965), an increase in the number of fledglings does not in itself disprove the food-limitation hypothesis. Only when brood-enlargement experiments produce more surviving offspring can this hypothesis be rejected (Lack 1954). The ability to provide food for a growing brood is probably the most fundamental factor governing clutch size in altricial birds. However, several alternative hypotheses have been proposed to explain why some birds seem ca1 Present address: Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada. pable of raising enlarged broods (see review in Murphy and Haukioja 1986). By manipulating clutches and broods, we tested three factors that might constrain clutch size in Least Flycatchers (Empidonax minimus). First, we recorded the risk of predation in relation to clutch size, because selection might favor reduced clutches if predation falls disproportionately upon large clutches (Skutch 1949). Large clutches could experience higher predation rates for various reasons (see review in Slagsvold 1982a). For example, laying larger clutches necessitates a longer nesting cycle and, as a result, increases the duration of exposure to predators. Larger broods also might attract more predators if they require larger and more conspicuous nests (Snow 1978) or if parents must increase the number of trips to and from the nest (Skutch 1949). Second, we increased clutch size to determine if brood size was limited by the inability of females to incubate a larger number of eggs. Although most birds are able to hatch more chicks in experimentally enlarged clutches (e.g. American Coot, Fulica americana, Fredrickson 1969; Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris, Slagsvold 1982b), some apparently cannot (e.g. Long-tailed Skuas, Stercorarius longicaudus, Andersson 1976; various Charadrii, Hills 1980). In the latter species, the number of eggs laid by a female corresponds to the maximum she can successfully incubate or brood; the upper limit is below that which could be raised (Lack 1947, Cody 1966). 269 The Auk 106: 269-278. April 1989 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.176 on Mon, 20 Jun 2016 06:36:27 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 270 BRISKiE AND SEALY [Auk, Vol. 106 Finally, we increased brood size to determine whether clutch size was limited by the broodrearing ability of adult Least Flycatchers. Because feeding demands of fledglings may exceed those of nestlings (e.g. Morehouse and Brewer 1968), we used both growth rates of nestlings and their relative survival to independence as measures of brood-rearing success." @default.
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• W2495142191 date "1989-01-01" @default.
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• W2495142191 title "Determination of clutch size in the least flycatcher" @default.
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