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• W2523228934 abstract "use of deception seems to have played a significant role in the evolution of the mind. that is better able to deceive those in his social group may also be better able to reproduce and gain resources. Thus, the smart individuals that detect the deceit (and perhaps employ counter-deception) will gain a competitive advantage. These individuals will be able to end their former exploitation, thereby furthering their own genetic success, perhaps through deceptive acts of their own. This struggle between deception, detection, and counter-deception may have engendered a cognitive race, in which a powerful trait for genetic success is to be slightly more intelligent than the conspecifics that share your lot (Tomasello and Call, 1997).I do not doubt that the ability to deceive (and to detect deception) would engendered such an arms race. What is suspect, however, is the extent to which contemporary (alive today) non-human animals are able to deceive. This, as we will see, is a terribly tricky thing to determine. There is an inherent difficulty in scientifically establishing whether animals employ higher-order deception.Why concern ourselves with higher-order deception? goal, ultimately , is to find evidence that animals possess a theory of mind. According to Heyes, an animal with a theory of mind believes that mental states play a causal role in generating behavior and infers the presence of mental states in others by observing their appearance and behavior under various circumstances (1998, p. 102). Currently, there is a significant and intransigent divide: some theorists claim that animals possess this ability, while others remain skeptical.1The goal of this essay is not to defuse or overcome this divide. Instead, it is to examine the difficulties that are incumbent upon one particular method of ascertaining if animals possess a theory of mind: establishing whether they employ higher-order deception. Since higher-order deception presupposes a theory of mind, evidence of such deception would, ipso facto, constitute evidence for an theory of mind. As this essay will attest, there are significant conceptual quagmires that must be bypassed in order to successfully employ such a method.Before proceeding, it is important to acknowledge two caveats to this work. First, this essay is primarily concerned with the conceptual issues that arise when determining whether animals are able to employ deception. It will not focus on the actual, empirical studies that have been conducted. This does not, however, render this work irrelevant or superfluous. Any study that has been conducted, or will be conducted in the future, should address the arguments in this essay. Second, I am not claiming that the detection of higher-order deception is the only way of ascertaining whether animals possess a theory of mind; rather, it is one of many. As Heyes (1998) writes, The most commonly cited evidence in support of this view comes from studies of imitation, self-recognition, social relationships, deception, role-taking (or empathy), and perspective-taking (p. 102, emphasis added). It is quite possible that we might determine that animals possess a theory of mind through other means (e.g., studies of imitation).The Concept of DeceptionStrategic DeceptionRobert Mitchell (1986) provides a clear and comprehensive method for describing different notions of deception. He divides deception into four levels.2 Each consecutive level assimilates the characteristics of the level before it.Mitchell's first level of deception applies to some animals' ability to mimic the appearance or actions of other animals. Defining this level, he writes, At this level, the actions of the receiver have no influence on the deceptive actions of the sender, at least during the lifetime of the sender. However, the actions of the receiver may have an effect on the population of the sender's species such that more deceitful will have greater representation in subsequent populations than will less deceitful senders (1986, pp. …" @default.
• W2523228934 created "2016-09-30" @default.
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• W2523228934 date "2015-07-01" @default.
• W2523228934 modified "2023-09-28" @default.
• W2523228934 title "Detecting Animal Deception" @default.
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