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• W260227201 abstract "IMMANUEL KANT GRADUATED IN 1755 from the University of Konigsberg on the basis of the dissertation On Fire (dissertatio pro gradu) and with the essay A New Exposition of the First Principles of Metaphysics (dissertatio pro receptione) written specifically for the occasion; he took up a position as lecturer in the same year. In 1756 he wrote a third Latin essay, the Physical Monadology (dissertatio pro loco), and applied for a professorship at the Albertina in Konigsberg. The application was unsuccessful and, more significantly, the work failed to attract the attention Kant had hoped. (1) He had to wait until 1770--some fourteen years later--for an appointment as full professor in Konigsberg, and it was not until the publication of the Critique of Pure Reason in 1781 that he finally established his reputation as a philosopher. (2) Despite its poor reception at the time of publication, however, the Physical Monadology remains an important work for a full understanding of Kant's philosophy of nature. Although his earlier works on natural philosophy--his first book, Thoughts on the True Estimation of the Living Forces (1746), and his General History and Theory of the Heavens (1755)--both contain reflections on motion, force, and matter, it was only in the Physical Monadology that Kant developed an original theory of matter. In this later work, Kant aims to show that only a metaphysical, or nonmathematical and nonexperimental, theory of matter can effectively restrain pure speculation in the philosophy of nature and thus provide a foundation for the development of a mathematical and experimental physics. Physics alone, Kant argues, is unable to ground its own principles and, in particular, cannot provide criteria for deciding between contradictory theorems generated by geometry and metaphysics: finite versus infinite divisibility of space, for example, the necessity of an empty space for free motion, or the universal gravitation exerted by the internal force of bodies even in rest and at a distance. (3) The solution to such problems, Kant suggests, can come only when natural science is supplemented by an a priori metaphysics of nature. As he says, Metaphysics, therefore, which many say may be properly absent from physics, is, in fact, its only support; it alone provides illumination. (4) With claims of this sort, Kant effectively outlined a research program that was to occupy him for some thirty years of his life, culminating in his main work on natural philosophy, the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science; and he remained interested in the issues beyond that work until his death in 1804. In this mature philosophy, Kant argues that although they are means by which laws of nature are discovered, mathematics and experience by themselves form an inadequate basis for exploring the grounds of such laws themselves. Natural science, that is, has to be extended beyond the limits prescribed by Newton. Indeed, Newton explicitly denied that such an extension was possible: But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypotheses; for whatever is not deduced from the phenomena is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction. Thus it was that the impenetrability, the mobility, and the impulsive force of bodies, and the laws of motion and of gravitation, were discovered. And to us it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained, and abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the celestial bodies, and of our sea. (5) Against this view, Kant claims that physics actually stands in need of metaphysical principles and that he himself is in a position to provide them. …" @default.
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• W260227201 title "Fabricating a World in Accordance with Mere Fantasy ...? the Origins of Kant's Critical Theory of Matter" @default.
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